Psychology of Learners (Reviewer) - Philippine Normal University

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! NATURE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT DEFINITION OF TERMS Development is predictable DEVELOPMENT – Refer...

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! NATURE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT DEFINITION OF TERMS Development is predictable DEVELOPMENT – Refers to the changes Specific areas of development, such as motor overtime, the structure, thought, or behavior of a development, speech, social behavior etc. follow persons as a result of both biological and predictable patterns. environmental influences (Craig, 1976). Early development is more critical than later development Biological Processes of Development According to Likhar et. al (2022), the GROWTH consequences of a child's development can affect refers to the increase in size, function, or a person's holistic health for a lifetime. This can complexity to that point of maturity. result to something negative or positive Changes in physiological aspect and overall depending on the social determinants of the place structure with an increasing quantity overtime where he/she lives. (size, height, and, weight) that individual Development involves Social expectations experience in a particular phase which ends after According to Havighurst, social expectations or the process of maturation. “developmental tasks” are task which arises at or MATURATION about a certain period in the life of an individual. refers to the process of growing according to a Development has potential hazards genetic plan (Craig, 1976). Hazards may be of physical, environmental or AGING psychological type. These hazards may be refers to the kind of biological changes that occur originated from the environment in which the child beyond the point of optimal maturity. grows or due to hereditary factors. They have negative impact on physical as well as Environmental Influence of Development sociopsychological development of the child. LEARNING Happiness varies at different periods of development the basic developmental process of change in the Childhood is the happies period of life and individual, and it results from experience or puberty is the most unhappy. The patterns of practice (Craig,1976). happiness vary from child to child and it is SOCIALIZATION influenced by the rearing process of the child is the general process by which the individual becomes a member of a social group (Craig, ISSUES REGARDING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1976). Principles of Growth and Development NATURE VS NURTURE CONTINUITY VS Development involves change. DISCONTINUITY The goal of these developmental changes is self-realization, which Abraham Maslow has This involves the degree to Whether a particular labeled as self-actualization (Mishra, 2023). which genetic or hereditary developmental Development is a continuous process influences (nature) and phenomenon represents a a process that consists of gradually adding more expirential or smooth progression of the same types of skills that were there to begin environmental influences throughout the life span with. (nurture) determine the (continuity) or a series of Development follows a direction and uniform pattern in kind of person. abrupts shifts an orderly manner. (discontinuity). Proximodistal Principle Cephalocaudal Principle Universal VS Context-Specific Development Individual Differences in the Development Process Universal Development - differences in Individual differences from heredity and development are simply variation on a environment operate together to produce a fundamental developmental process here e all person’s overall personality, well-being, have the same manufacturing process. intelligence, height, weight, ability, and so on On the other hand, in context-specific (Mishra, 2023). development differences among people may not be just variation on theme which a person’s Development depends on maturation and learning development is a product of complex interaction Perceptual development relies heavily on the in the environment, and that interaction is not maturation of the sensory organ and the central fundamentally the same in all environments. nervous system. With the newborn infant possess a variety of perceptual skills demonstrates that these skills do not depende on experience (Mishra, 2023). ANGE ᵕ̈ PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT (DOT) MID-LATE CHILDHOOD (6 to 11 Years Old) Lifespan development is a continuous process Children gain greater control over the movement of their influenced by both environment and biological bodies, mastering many gross and fine motor skills that factors. eluded the younger child. Changes in the brain during According to Paul Baltes, there are several this age enable not only physical development but principles in the lifespan perspective. also contribute to greater reasoning and flexibility of thought. (Lally M., French S.V., 2022) 1. Development is lifelong 2. Development is multidirectional ADOLESCENCE (10 to 18 Years Old) 3. Development is multidimensional Adolescence is a period that begins with puberty 4. Development is Multidisciplinary and ends with the transition to adulthood 5. Development is Characterized by plasticity (approximately ages 10–18). Physical changes 6. Development is Multicontextual associated with puberty are triggered by hormones. Changes happen at different rates in In 1987, Baltes identified three specific contextual distinct parts of the brain and increase influences. adolescents’ propensity for risky behavior. (Lally 1. Normative age-graded M., French S.V., 2022) 2. Normative history graded 3. Non-normative life influences EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 to 29 Years Old) Individuals in this age period have left behind the PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT relative dependency of childhood and adolescence but have not yet taken on the PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (conception to 9 months) responsibilities of adulthood. "Emerging Three Periods of Prenatal Development: adulthood is a time of life when many different GERMINAL PERIOD directions remain possible, when little about the Conception to Implantation of the fertilized egg in future is decided for certain, when the scope of the lining of the uterus. independent exploration of life's possibilities is EMBRYONIC PERIOD greater for most people than it will be at any other From the third week of pregnancy, the blastocyst period of the life course" (Arnett, 2000, p. 469). has implanted in the uterine wall. Upon age of identity exploration implantation, this multicellular organism is now age of feeling in between called an embryo. (Lally M., French S.V., 2022) age of instability FETAL PERIOD age of self-focus age of possibilities From the ninth week of pregnancy until birth, the organism is referred to as a fetus. During this MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (45 to 65 Years Old) stage, major structures are continuing to develop. Middle adulthood, or midlife, is the period (LallyM., French S.V., 2022) between early and late adulthood. The general age range for this stage is from 40-45 to 60-65, INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (Birth to 36 Months) but this can vary based on cultural definitions and Changes during this time are so dramatic and so expectations. (Pelz et al., 2024) noticeable. (Lally M., French S.V., 2022) Middle-aged adults, with their store of knowledge The average newborn in the United States weighs and experience, are likely to find that when faced about 7.5 pounds (between 5 and 10 pounds) and with a problem they have likely faced something is about 20 inches in length. By the time an infant similar before. This allows them to ignore the is 4 months old, it usually doubles in weight and irrelevant and focus on the important aspects of by one year has tripled the birth weight. By age 2, the issue. (Charness & Krampe, 2006) the weight has quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2-year-old should weigh between 20 and 40 LATE ADULTHOOD (Mid Sixties - Death) pounds (Bloem, 2007). Both adolescence and late adulthood are transitional times in the life span, each with their EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 to 5 Years Old)) own issues of change and their own cultural The 3-year-old is still very similar to a toddler with imagery. It has been argued that these two life a large head, large stomach, short arms and legs. phases involve transitional identity systems, the By the time the child reaches age 6, however, the years before and after those of major adulthood torso has lengthened, and body proportions have responsibilities. become more like those of adults. Those in late adulthood need to achieve the acceptance of their life and the inevitability of their death (Barker, 2016). This stage includes finding meaning in one's life and accepting one's accomplishments, but also acknowledging what in life has not gone as hoped. ANGE ᵕ̈ PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! 12 through Format Abstract logic COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT adulthood operational Potential for “Cognition or understanding is dependent on the child’s stage mature moral readiness to understand himself and his environment. This abstract reasoning comes from the level of maturation of the brain and the rest reasoning of the nervous system of his sense organ.” Jean Piaget Stranger’s anxiety is the fear of strangers Name: Jean Piaget commonly displayed beginning about 8 months of Born: August 9, 1896 age. Death: September 16, 1980 (84 yrs old) Attachment is an emotional tie with another Education: University of Neuchatel and University of person shown in young children by their seeking Zurich closeness to care giver and showing distress. Habituation is decreasing responsiveness with Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, he was the first to make repeated simulation. a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in Conservation is the principles that properties children (The editors of Encyclopedia Britanicca, 2024). He such as mass, volume and number remain the is best known for his research on children’s cognitive same despite the changes in the form of the development (Kurt, S., 2022). object. Egocentrism is the inability of the preoperational Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development child to take another’s point of view. The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to age 2 Age Range Description of Developmental Piaget's sensorimotor stage is the first stage of cognitive Stage Phenomena development, where infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions. They touch, manipulate, and explore Birth to nearly 2 Sensori Motor Object objects, building basic concepts about them. A key development years old Stage: permanence during this stage is object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view. This Experiencing the Stranger’s means that even if a toy is out of sight, the infant knows it still exists. world anxiety through motor The Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7 and actions During the preoperational stage, children can use symbols to e.g looking, represent objects, but their thinking isn't fully logical. This is evident touching, in their imaginative play, where they engage in make-believe mouthing scenarios. This dual processing of reality and imagination shows early signs of metacognition, the ability to think about thinking. 2 years - 6 years Preoperational Pretend to play The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11 stage Egocentrism In the concrete operational stage, children's thinking becomes more Representing Language logical and organized, allowing them to solve problems things with development systematically. They begin to understand basic rules of logic, like the words and idea that the amount of something remains the same if nothing is added or removed. This stage is called "concrete operational" images but because children apply these rules to real, tangible objects and lacking in logical events. reasoning The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond 7 - 11 years old Concrete Conservation In the formal operational stage, individuals develop the ability to operational Mathematical think abstractly and hypothetically. This allows them to reason about concepts beyond tangible objects and events, including scientific stage Transformations problems. They can engage in hypothetical reasoning, considering Thinking logically possibilities and testing ideas, which is crucial for higher-level about learning. concrete events: grasping, Piaget's stages of development are not linear, meaning that earlier concrete stages don't disappear as new ones emerge. Instead, new skills and analogies and abilities build upon and integrate with existing ones, like layers in a pyramid. performing mathematical operations ANGE ᵕ̈ PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF Vygotskian notion of mediation as the major COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT determinant of the development of New motives LEV SEMYONOVICH VYGOTSKY Vygotsky emphasized that child development A Russian-Jewish psychologist and educator includes not only cognitive skills but also the Born 1896 in Orsha, Belrus development of motives. He believed that new The Mozart of Psychology motives emerge within existing activities, meaning Admitted to Moscow State University through a child might initially engage in an activity for a "Jewish Lottery" different reason than they ultimately continue Studied law, medicine, history, philosophy, and doing it. graduated in 1917. Begin his career as a researcher at Psychological CONCLUSIONS Institute in Moscow in 1924 Completing his According to the Vygotskians, children develop within their dissertation In 1925. age-appropriate activities, however, the children’s abilities Died at the age of 37 (1934) and mental processes are not advanced enough to make it possible for them to perform these activities without adult SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY help. Therefore, at first, these activities can be performed Sociocultural forces in shaping the situation of a only as joint child-adult activities. This is by teaching or child’s development and learning points to the mediating the children those psychological tools that will crucial role played by parents, teachers, peers, eventually make it possible for the children to start and the community in defining the types of performing these activities independently. To also construct interaction occurring between children and their motivation to unlock abilities from those activities and environments. mental processes. Vygotsky argued that children's learning and development are not solely driven by heredity, conditioning, or independent exploration. Instead, COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT he believed that cognitive development occurs JEROME BRUNER through adult mediation, where adults engage Bruner (1966) hypothesized that the usual course children in activities that foster new ways of of intellectual development moves through three thinking, problem-solving, and self-regulation. stages: enactive, iconic, and symbolic, in that This process helps develop intrinsic motivation order. However, unlike Piaget's stages, Bruner did and prepares children for successful learning in not contend that these stages were necessarily school. age-dependent, or invariant. Born: October 1, 1915, New York VYGOTSKIAN NOTION OF MEDIATION AS THE Died: at the age of 100 June 5, 2016, New York MAJOR DETERMINANT OF THE DEVELOPMENT Fields of Study: Cognitive psychology, OF NEW ABILITIES educational theory Human practical activity is mediated by tools, Contribution: Major influence on understanding which enhance our physical abilities. Similarly, cognitive development and educational methods mental processes are aided by psychological tools like language, concepts, and symbols. Constructivism in education is a theory that suggests that Vygotsky believed that these tools should be learners do not passively acquire knowledge through direct taught to children by adults, rather than instruction. Instead, they construct their understanding rediscovered independently. through experiences and social interaction, Integrating new information with their existing knowledge. This theory ZONE OF PROXIMAL originates. from Swiss developmental psychologist Jean DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) Piaget's theory of cognitive development Focused on the relation between instruction and development. It is often assumed that the zone of “Scaffolding” refers to the steps taken to reduce the proximal development is meant to be applied to degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the any kind of learning task. child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the The distance between the actual developmental process of acquiring" level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. ANGE ᵕ̈ PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! Interactionist Perspective BRUNER'S 3 MODES OF REPRESENTATION The interactionist perspective recognizes that both innate ENACTIVE MODE 0-1YR OLD (action-based) biological abilities and environmental factors work together In the enactive mode, knowledge is stored to shape how children learn language. primarily in the form of motor responses. This mode is used within the first year of life. Thinking Parent-Child Interactions is based entirely on physical actions, and infants Researchers and language specialists highlight learn by doing, rather than by internal the significant impact of caregivers, particularly representation (for thinking) mothers, on infants' language learning through Senden's campendium (1960) of evidence makes their interactions. reasonably plain that such aspatial framework Bruner believes parents create a language cannot be achieved without sight. Therefore, acquisition support device (LASD) that equals objects are “constructed” the construction takes Chomsky's LAD in importance. place within a prepared and innate visual framework. Parent-infant speech It is a simplified and engaging language style used IKONIC MODE 1-6 yrs old (image-based) by both mothers and fathers when talking to The second stage in representation emerges infants, is characterized by higher pitch, simplified when a child is finally able to represent the world words, shorter utterances, repetition, and a focus to himself by an image-or spatial schema that is on the child's world. relatively independent of action. Joint Attention SYMBOLIC MODE 7 yrs old (language-based) Parents and infants often communicate through In the symbolic stage, Knowledge is stored "joint attention" where they both focus on the primarily as language, mathematical symbols, or same object, sounds, or events. in other symbol systems. This mode is acquired around six to seven years old (corresponding to NATAVIST/NATURALIST Perspective Piaget's concrete operational stage). Noam Chomsky (1957) offers a natavist White (1949) makes such "symbolling" the unique perspective of language acquisition. basis of all human behavior. The innateness theory argues that children have preprogrammed, innate (inborn) abilities that are SPIRAL CURRICULUM specialized for syntactic language acquisition. A child (of any age) is capable of understanding Language development occurs as the result of an complex information. Bruner explained how this is interaction between children's innate skills and possible through the concept of the spiral linguistic data. curriculum. This involves structuring information Children's innate abilities allow them to derive so that complex ideas can be taught at a grammatical rules or principles from limited simplified level first and then revisited at more language input, such as incomplete sentences complex levels later on (Bruner, 1960) spoken by adults in children's language environment. The innateness of linguistic theory argues that LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT children possess a specialised innate mechanism Behaviorist Perspective that allows children to form ideas about the Skinner (1957) offers a behavioural view of regularities or consistent patterns found in language acquisition. language, such as the order of words that occur in Children are provided with cues from the sentences. environment that set the conditions for a Infants are born with an innate mental capacity, behaviour to occur. the language acquisition device. The environment plays a role in language development through operant conditioning. SUMMARY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE AND Operant conditioning consists of reinforcement LATE CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENTS (positive or negative reaction) and imitation Children's language continues to develop during elementary, middle, and high school years when children are in middle child-hood (6-8 (modelling). years), late childhood (9-12 years), and into adolescence (12+ years). Children learn language through the association During these periods of development, children improve their between the stimulus (something that causes a language knowledge to include advances in the form, content, and response) and the (reinforcement or lack of use of language. Language expansion is facilitated in the child and reinforcement). adolescent through academic classroom experience, significant achievements in social cognition and interaction, integration of spoken and written language, cognitive/intellectual development, and individual language experiences. ANGE ᵕ̈ PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNERS (REVIEWER) PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LAGI'T LAGI, PARA SA BATA, PARA SA BAYAN! PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOANALYTIC SUPEREGO THEORY of Sigmund Freud The superego, which emerges around age 5, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the represents internalized moral standards and ideals influence of unconscious desires, particularly those related acquired from parents and society. It acts as a to sex and aggression, on our behavior. He proposed that guide for judging right and wrong, aiming to the mind is divided into three parts: the id (basic urges), the civilize behavior. The superego consists of two ego (reality), and the superego (moral values), which often parts: the conscience (sense of guilt) and the ego conflict, shaping our actions. Freud believed that early ideal (aspirations for perfection). childhood experiences significantly impact our adult lives, and unresolved conflicts can lead to later problems. Despite Development of Personality his methods not being strictly scientific, Freud's ideas have Infantile Period (Birth to 6 years old) had a profound influence on psychology. This period is crucial for personality development. Freud believed that early experiences shape our Sigmund Freud future personality. It has three phases, each Birth: Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia focused on different areas of pleasure. (now the Czech Republic) Education: Entered the University of Vienna Medical School, initially Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) focused on research It focuses on things like breastfeeding or sucking Paris study: In 1885, studied hysteria and hypnosis under their thumbs. Jean-Martine Charcot in Paris. Psychoanalysis: Developed psychoanalysis, introducing key concepts like the unconscious, free association, and dream Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) interpretation. Toddlers learn about control through potty Major Works: Published Interpretation of Dreams (1900), a training. They might feel proud or frustrated about foundational text for psychoanalysis. it. Organization: Founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (1902) and the International Psychoanalytic Association (1910). Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Later Life: Fled to London in 1938 due to the Nazi invasion; died on September 23, 1939. At this age, kids start to notice and talk about the differences between boys and girls. Levels of Mental Life Latency Period (6 to 12 years) Conscious Preconscious Unconscious During this time, kids focus on learning, making friends, and playing. They aren’t as interested in Consciousness The preconscious The unconscious romance or sexuality. refers to the mind holds holds hidden thoughts and thoughts and thoughts and Genital Period (12 years and above) feelings we know information that desires we aren’t As teenagers grow up, they start to feel more at any moment, we aren’t aware of, but they interested in other people and romantic though it plays a currently aware of still influence relationships. They become more aware of smaller role in but can bring to much of what we themselves and their feelings. psychoanalytic mind easily or say, feel, and do theory with a bit of effort Maturity People can balance their feelings and make good choices when they grow up fully. They learn to Personality Structure handle their emotions and build healthy ID relationships. The id is the innate, unconscious part of personality present from birth. It contains all psychic energy, drives instinctive behaviors, and operates based on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires. EGO The ego develops from the id and functions in all levels of consciousness (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious). It acts as a mediator between the id's impulses and the real world, ensuring that desires are expressed in acceptable ways. The ego is responsible for dealing with reality and is not synonymous with personality. ANGE ᵕ̈