The Scientific Revolution (17th-18th Century) PDF

IV. The Scientific Revolution (17th-18th Century) The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about natu...

IV. The Scientific Revolution (17th-18th Century) The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about nature. The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: collaboration, the derivation of new experimental methods, the ability to build on the legacy of existing scientific philosophy, and institutions that enabled academic publishing. Under the scientific method, which was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned and a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community. During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, and the value of experimental or observed evidence, led to a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 139  As the scientific revolution was not marked by any single change, many new ideas contributed. Some of them were revolutions in their own fields. Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences, and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of the development of free speech and thought. The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: 1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances in all fields. 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today). 3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or building on the theorems). 4. Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’ work. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 140 A. New Methods Under the scientific method that was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned, and a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community. During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences perceived between two of its founders—Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was described as a rationalist. Bacon’s works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or sometimes simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 141  Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Advancement of Learning. Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it with philosophy and knowledge. Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation. Urged scientists to experiment & draw conclusions. Not rely on medieval scholars. Called empiricism Empiricism: A theory stating that knowledge comes only, or primarily, from sensory experience. It emphasizes evidence, especially the kind of evidence gathered through experimentation and by use of the scientific method. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 142 A.1 The Scientific Method By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as the Scientific Method. Scientific Method – painstaking method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis. Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested these hypotheses through experiments. Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation and experimentation. The Scientific Method Scientists soon discovered that the movements of bodies in 1. State the problem nature closely followed what 2. Collect information could be predicted by 3. Form a hypothesis mathematics. 4. Test the hypothesis 5. Record & analyze data The scientific method set Europe 6. State a conclusion 7. Repeat steps 1 – 6 on the road to rapid technological progress. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 143 B. New Ideas Many new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Some of them were revolutions in their own fields. These include: The heliocentric model that involved the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the universe. The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility and the work culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather than the animal dissections, as practiced for centuries. Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity, and thus, electric properties of various materials. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 144  Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they are today), including dentistry, physiology, chemistry, or optics. Invention of tools that deepened the understating of sciences, including mechanical calculator, steam digester (the forerunner of the steam engine), refracting and reflecting telescopes, vacuum pump, or mercury barometer. C. The Emergence of Modern Astronomy While astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, its development during the period of the scientific revolution entirely transformed the views of society about nature. The publication of the seminal work in the field of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus ‘ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) published in 1543, is, in fact, often seen as marking the beginning of the time when scientific disciplines, including astronomy, began to apply modern empirical research methods, and gradually transformed into the modern sciences as we know them today. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 145 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) From 1543 until about 1700, few astronomers were convinced by the Copernican system. Forty- five years after the publication of De Revolutionibus, the astronomer Tycho Brahe went so far as to construct a cosmology precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus, but with Earth held fixed in the center of the celestial sphere instead of the sun. However, Tycho challenged the Aristotelian model when he observed a comet that went through the region of the planets. This region was said to only have uniform circular motion on solid spheres, which meant that it would be impossible for a comet to enter into the area. Brahe set up an astronomical observatory. Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and planets. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 146 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) After Brahe ’ s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. In 1596, he published his first book, the Mysterium cosmographicum, which was the first to openly endorse Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since the 1540s. Expanded on Copernicus’ ideas and proved that planets revolved around the sun elliptically not in circular orbits as Copernicus and Ptolemy claimed. Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed by man-made satellites today. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 147 D. Uniting Astronomy and Physics Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realizing that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain, in one theoretical framework, all known gravitational phenomena and formulated the laws of motion: 1. A body at rest stays at rest 2. Acceleration is caused by force 3. For every action there is an equal opposite reaction He discovered laws of light and color He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 148  E. Medicine Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body. Vesalius ’ book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy. Through his publication he demonstrated the mistakes in the Galenic model. His anatomical teachings were based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather than the animal dissections that Galen had used as a guide. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 149  Vesalius’ work emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the “anatomical” view of the body, seeing human Galen and his internal functioning as an essentially corporeal colleagues structure filled with organs arranged in three- dissecting a dimensional space. human corpse Human anatomy drawing of Vesalius (On the Structure of the Human Body, 1543) Human anatomy drawing before Vesalius PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 150 William Harvey (1578-1657) Venal valves had already been discovered, but here Harvey shows that venal blood flows only toward the heart. He ligatured an arm to make obvious the veins and their valves, then pressed blood away from the heart and showed that the vein would remain An English physician and empty because it was the first to describe blocked by the valve. completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain Harvey’s depiction of systemic circulation and body by the heart. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 151  Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) A French surgeon who is considered one of the fathers of surgery and modern forensic pathology, and a pioneer in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine, especially in the treatment of wounds. He developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection and introduce a technique for closing wounds and stitches. Paré performing an operation at an Cauterizing Instruments of Ambroise Paré injured soldier PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 152  Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch botanist, chemist, Christian humanist and physician of European fame, is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital. He is sometimes referred to as “the father of physiology.” Santorio Santorio (1561-1636), Venetian physician who introduced the quantitative approach into medicine. Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), a pupil of Santorio, best known for demonstrating the relation of symptoms to lesions and, in addition, he was the first to isolate the chemical urea from urine. He was the first physician that put thermometer measurements to clinical practice. Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761), started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named “the father of modern dentistry.” He is widely known for writing the first complete scientific description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste (“The Surgeon Dentist”), published in 1728. The book described basic oral anatomy and function, signs and symptoms of oral pathology, operative methods for removing decay and restoring teeth, periodontal disease (pyorrhea), orthodontics, replacement of missing teeth, and tooth transplantation. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 153 F. Other Scientific Advances Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)  ModernGenetics. When he wrote “Experiments on Plant Hybridization”, he paved the way for biology students to study genetic traits in peas. During his experiments, Gregor found that a specific trait would be dominant over other traits in the same species. This became to be recognized as the Mendelian inheritance. Robert Hooke (1635–1703)  Coined the term “cell” Born on 1635 in the Isle of Wight, England, Robert Hooke received his higher education at Oxford University where he studied physics and chemistry. His work included the application what is known today as Hooke’s law, his use of microscopy, and for the discovery of the “cell” in 1665 using cork and a microscope. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 154  Robert Boyle (1627-1691)  In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds.  Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases.  Founder of modern chemistry. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)  Regarded by many as the one who discovered oxygen.  He published six volumes of ‘Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air’ between 1772 and 1790. In this work, he wrote about the experiments he made using different kinds of air. It was these experiments that established his reputation as a chemist. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 155  Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)  Identified the significance of this gas in the process of combustion.  He stated that during the process of combustion, not only is a substantial quantity of air used, but there is also a visible gain in the mass of the substance.  His contribution to the field of chemistry, in particular, is extremely indispensable, and forms the basis of several present day scientific theories. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)  British scientist of the eighteenth century who is credited with discovery of the element hydrogen. His scientific experiments were instrumental in reformation of chemistry and heralded a new era in the field of theoretical chemistry.  He is also renowned as one of the first scientists who propounded the theory of Conservation of mass and heat. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 156 Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)  The father of modern biological classification systems.  Published a series of scientific masterpieces, outlaying his system for dividing animal and plant kingdoms into a nested series of categories and sub-categories.  First printed in 1735, the book “Systema Naturae” was the complete description of how Linnaeus had classified more than 7,000 species of plants and 4,000 species of animals. Charles Darwin (1809–1882)  Proposed the “Theory of Evolution”, After attending the University of Cambridge and taking up medicine at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, Darwin was considered a naturalist.  As a biologist, he proposed the concept that “all species of life” came from a single source. His theory of evolution marked the beginning of the discussion on natural selection. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 157 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)  The Father of Microbiology. Antoine Philips van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, Netherlands in 1632. His interest in lensmaking and curiosity led him to be the first to observe single cell organisms. He is considered a biologist and microscopist which has earned him the distinction of being the father of microbiology. Edward Jenner (1749–1823)  Creating the first effective vaccine for smallpox Edward Jenner is considered as the “father of immunology” mainly because of his pioneering work on the smallpox vaccine and the use of vaccination. Born in Berkeley, England in 1749, he specialized in microbiology at the University of St. Andrews and the University of London. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 158 Claude Bernard (1813–1878)  Blind experimental method for objective results Born in Saint Julien, France in 1813, Claude Bernard has been considered “one of the greatest of all men of science.” He fostered the use of blind experiments in order to produce objective results. He also believed that vivisection, the use of surgery on a living thing for knowledge, was useful in the study and practice of medicine. Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)  Created the process of pasteurization for treating milk and wine. As one of the founders of medical microbiology, Louis Pasteur’s education in the field of chemistry and microbiology may be credited with his success. His germ theory of disease became the catalyst to his process we know as pasteurization. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 159 Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)  Humboldtian science. Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was born in 1769. He was an explorer, geographer, and naturalist. His work in biogeography paved the way to the idea that the land in Africa, South America, and those along the Atlantic Ocean were once joined together. He believed in the approach of combining the different branches of the physical sciences, such as biology, geology, and meteorology, this we know today as Humboldtian science. Joseph Lister (1827–1912)  Using antiseptics for cleaning and sterilizing wounds. Joseph Lister was born in 1827 in the city of Upton, Essex, England where he attended the University of London, and later in Scotland at the University of Edinburgh and University of Glasgow. He became a surgeon and pioneered the work of antiseptic or sterile surgery. He used carbolic acid to cleanse wounds and to sterilize instruments used for surgery. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 160  Robert Brown (1773–1858)  Discovered the cell nucleus. Specializing in botany, Scottish born Robert Brown introduced the model that help describe random movements of cells which is known as particle theory, or more aptly, Brownian motion. Among his contributions to the world of science was his description in detail of the cell nucleus in all living things. Marie Curie (1867-1934)  Made history in 1903 as the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics. Not only that, she received the same prestigious award in Chemistry in 1911. She has collaborated lots of scientific work with her husband Pierre. Marie Curie, who explored much on radioactivity, is most remembered for her discovery of radium and polonium. She also conducted her own experiments on uranium rays which eventually led her to coin the term radioactivity. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 161  Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)  Lovelace wrote instructions for solving a complex math problem, should the machine ever see the light of day. Many historians would later deem those instructions the first computer program, and Lovelace the first programmer. Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)  A brilliant scientist who developed the alternating-current electrical system and discovered the rotating magnetic field. He also invented the Tesla coil, still being used in radio technology today. He did not have any formal scientific education but that did not stop him from delving into science, so he tinkered in machinery.  He worked with Thomas Edison, improving the latter’s ideas; but they eventually fell apart because of the differences and clash in methods and ideas. He established his own laboratory wherein he experiment with early X-ray technology, electrical resonance, arc lamps and others. Tesla was a magnificent man of science but unable to take his gift to his advantage, because he was said to be a terrible businessman and never saw the commercial value behind his ideas. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 162  Albert Einstein (1879-1955)  In 1905, Einsteein published his four most important papers One of them described the relationship between matter and energy, neatly summarized E = mc2. Other papers that year were on Brownian motion, suggesting the existence of molecules and atoms, and the photoelectric effect, showing that light is made of particles later called photons. His fourth paper, about special relativity, explained that space and time are interwoven, a shocking idea now considered a foundational principle of astronomy. Einstein expanded on relativity in 1916 with his theory of gravitation: general relativity. Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)  Franklin was also a brilliant chemist and a master of X- ray crystallography, an imaging technique that reveals the molecular structure of matter based on the pattern of scattered X-ray beams. Her early research into the microstructures of carbon and graphite are still cited, but her work with DNA was the most significant — and it may have won three men a Nobel. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 163  The defining feature of the scientific revolution lies in how much scientific thought changed during a period of only a century, and in how quickly differing thoughts of different natural philosophers condensed to form a cohesive experimental method that chemists, biologists, and physicists can easily utilize today.  The sudden emergence of new information during the Scientific Revolution called into question religious beliefs, moral principles, and the traditional scheme of nature. It also strained old institutions and practices, necessitating new ways of communicating and disseminating information.  Prominent innovations included scientific societies: which were created to discuss and validate new discoveries;  Scientific papers: which were developed as tools to communicate new information comprehensibly and test the discoveries and hypothesesmade by their authors. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 164