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ITP Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is WEEK 1-3 influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Psy...

ITP Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is WEEK 1-3 influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. However, there are some Experimental psychology studies the processes of ongoing debates about hoe broad the scope of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the psychology would be. world. The phrase behavior and mental processes in the Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues, such as definition of psychology must be understood to mean determining the accuracy of witness memories. many things: It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts emotions perceptions Health psychology explores the relationship between reasoning processes,memories, and even the biological psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. activities that maintain bodily functioning. Industrial/organizational psychology is concerned with the psychology of the workplace. four goals of psychology are describe, predict and explain human behavior and Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in mental processes as well as helping to change and people's behavior ove time and the traits that improve the lives of people and the world in which they differentiate one person from another. live. Program evaluation focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as the Head Start preschool program, Behavioral genetics studies the inheritance of bits to determine whether they are effective in meeting related to behavior their goals. Behavioral neuroscience examines the biological besis Psychology of women focuses on issues such as of beltavor discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women. Cinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and beatment of pychological disorders School psychology is devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of or emotional problems. biopsychology and clinical psychology focusing on the relationship between biological factors and Social psychology is the study of how people's psychological disorders. thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Sport psychology applies psychology to athletic activity Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher and exercise. mental processes THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR - Counseling psychology focuses primarily on Behavioral neuroscience is the subfield of psychology educational, social, and career adjustment problems that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, Cross-cultural psychology Investigates the simlarites determine behavior. neuroscientists consider how our and differences in psychological functioning in and body influences our behavior. across various cultures and ethnic groups. For example, they may examine the link between Developmental psychology examines how people specific sites in the brain and the muscular tremors of grove and change from the moment of conception people affected by Parkinson's disease or attempt to through death. determine how our emotions are related to physical sensations. Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology between motivation and school performance. that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving learning, andthinking about the world. (The term Environmental psychology considers the relationship experimental psychologist is somewhat misleading: between people and their physical environment. Psychologists in every specialty area use experimental techniques) cognitive psychology, which focuses on higher mental The three newer members of the field's family tree processes, including thinking, memory, reasoning evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics and problem solving judging, decision making, and dinical neuropsychology. language ➤ Evolutionary psychology considershow behavior is Developmental psychology studies how people grow influenced by our genetic inheritance from our and change from the moment of conception through ancestors. This approach suggests that it does not only death. Personality psychology focuses on the determines trait such as hair color and race but holds consistency in people's behavior over time and the the key to understanding a broad variety of behaviors traits that differentiate one person from another. that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. Evolutionary psychology stems from Charles Darwin's Health psychology explores the relationship between arguments in his ground- breaking 1859 book, On the psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. Origin of Species Darwin suggested that a process of For example, health psychologists are interested in natural selection leads to the survival of the fittest and assessing how long-term stress (a psychological factor) the development of traits that enable a species to can affect physical health and in identifying ways to adapt to its environment. promote behavior that brings about good health (Belar, 2008; Yardley & Moss-Morris, 2009; Proyer et For example, evolutionary psychologists suggest that al., 2013). behavior such as shyness jealousy, and cross-cultural similarities in qualities desired in potential mates are at Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis and least partially determined by genetics, presumably treatment of psychological disorders Clinical because such behavior helped increase the survival psychologists are trained to diagnose and treat rate of problems that range from the crises of everyday life, such as unhappiness over the breakup of a relationship, Behavioral Genetics is another rapidly growing area in to more extreme conditions such as profound, psychology focuses on the biological mechanisms, such lingering depression. Some if them also research and as genes and chromosomes, that enable inherited investigate issues that vary from identifying the early behavior to unfold. Behavioral genetics seeks to signs of psychological disturbance to studying the understand how we might inherit certain behavioral relationship between family communication patterns traits and how the environment influences whether we and psychological disorders actually display such traits (Rende, 2007; Maxson, 2013, Vukasovic & Bratko, 2015). Counseling psychologists deal with people's psychological problems, but the problems they deal Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of with are more specific. focuses primarily on neuroscience and clinical psychology: It focuses on the educational, social, and career adjustment problems origin of psychological disorders in biological factors Almost every college has a center staffed with counseling psychologists. This is where students. can Graduate of psychology program can be employed in get advice on the kinds of jobs they might be best a variety of settings. suited for, on methods of studying effectively, and on Most of them who pursue doctoral degree are strategies for resolving everyday difficulties such as employed by institutions of higher learning problems with roommates and concerns about a (universities and colleges) or are self-employed, usually specific professor's grading practices. working as private practitionerstreating clients. Other work sites include hospitals, clinics, mental health Social psychology is the study of how people's centers, counseling centers, government human- thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others services organizations businesses, schools, and even Social psychologists concentrate on such diverse topics prisons Whatever the particular job site, graduate if as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and psychology program share a commitment to improving conformity. individual lives as well as society in general. Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities A Psychometrician is responsible for the and differences in psychological functioning in and administration and scoring of psychological across various cultures and ethnic groups For example, assessment tests under the supervision of a cross-cultural psychologistsexamine how cultures Psychologist. They also design and create. tests that differ in their use of punishment during child rearing collect data used to measure mental capacity and thought processes. In the Philippines, to be a registered Psychometrician you need to pass the Board Licensure Hippocrates four temperaments and their Examination for Psychometrician. predominant humors are as follows: Sanguine, blood,Phlegmatic phlegm, Choleric, yellow bile, A Psychologist study cognitive, emotional, and social Melancholic: black bile Franz Josef Gall proposes processes and behavior by observing interpreting and Phrenology, an outmoded scientific discipline, recording how individuals relate to one another and to predicted individual traits and characteristics in their environments. To be a Licensed Psychologist in humans by analyzing the shape of the skull. the Philippines, a graduate of MA in Psychology needs to pass the Licensure Examination for Psychologist. 17th-century British philosopher John Locke introduces idea of tabula rasa, a Latin term that can be A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in mental translated to "blank slate." He believed that children health care. It will require you to go to medical school. were bom into the world with minds like "blank slates" After completing an undergraduate program in (tabula rasa in Latin) and that their experiences science, you would then attend graduate program to determined what kind of adults they would become. complete a medical degree and would complete four years of residency with your training in psychiatry. Wilhelm Wundt, German physiologist and Following an internship and will be required to pass the psychologist who is generally acknowledged as the exam. founder of experimental psychology. Note that psychologists are distinct from psychiatrists who have a medical degree and specialize in the The Principles of Psychology is a two-volume diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, introduction to the study of the human mind published often using treatments that involve the prescription of by William James drugs. Sigmund Freud psychodynamic perspective Seven thousand years ago, people assumed that emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for psychological problems were caused by evil spirits. To example, wishes and fears of which we're not fully allow those spirits to escapefrom a person's body, aware), and contends that childhood experiences are ancient healers chipped a hole in a patient's skull with crucial in shaping adult personality. crude instruments a procedure called trephining. According to the 17th-century philosopher Descartes, Ivan Pavlov, developed the principles of classical nerves were hollow tubes through which "animal conditioning. spirits" conducted impulses in the same way that water is transmitted through a pipe. When a person put a finger too close to a fire, heat was transmitted to The formal beginning of psychology as a scientific the brain through the tubes discipline is generally considered to be in the late 19th century, when Wilhelm Wundt, in Leipzig, Germany, Franz Josef Gall, an 18th-century physician, argued established the first experimental laboratory devoted that a trained observer could discem intelligence, to psychological phenomena. When Wundt set up his moral character, and other basic personality laboratory in 1879, hisaim was to study the building characteristics from the shape and number of bumps blocks of the mind. He considered psychology to be the on a person'sskull. His theory gave rise to the field of study of conscious experience. His perspective, which phrenology, employed by hundreds of practitioners in came to be known as structuralism focused on the 19thcentury. uncovering the fundamental mental components ofperception, consciousness thinking, emotions and other kinds of mental states and activities To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world, Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection. It is a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus. For example, presented people with a stimulus such as a bright green object or a sentence printed on a card and asked them to describe, in their own words and in as much detail as they could what they were experiencing. The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as functionalism. Rather than focusing on the mind's structure, functionalism TODAY'S FIVE MAJOR PERSPECTIVES concentrated on what the mind does the functions of The major perspectives of Psychology. These broad mental activity and the role of behavior in allowing perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior people to adapt to their environments. For example, a and mental processes, and each takes our functionalist might examine the function of the understanding of behavior in a somewhat different emotion of fear in preparing us to deal with emergency direction. situations. William James an American psychologist, led the functionalist movement. Another important reaction to structuralism was the development of gestalt psychology in the early 1900s Gestalt (geh-SHTALLT) psychology, focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception. Led by German scientists such as Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer, gestalt psychologists proposed that "The whole is different from the sum of itsparts" meaning that our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual THE NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE: BLOOD, SWEAT, elements that make up our perception AND FEARS is the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions It considers how people and WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY: FOUNDING MOTHERS nonhumans function biologically: how individual nerve cells are joined together, how the inheritance of Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) was the first certain characteristics from parents and other woman to receive a doctorate in psychology, and she ancestors influences behavior, how the functioning of did important work on animal behaviour. the body affects hopes and fears, which behaviors are instinctual, and so forth. This perspective includes the Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) was one of the study of heredity and evolution, which considers how first psychologists to focus on child development and heredity may influence behavior, and behavioral on women's issues. She collected data to refute the neuroscience, which examines how the brain and the view, popular in the early 1900s, that women's. nervous system affect behavior abilities periodically declined during parts of the menstrual cycle (Hollingworth, 1943/1990, Denmark & THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: Fernandez, 1993; Furumoto & Scarborough, 2002). UNDERSTANDING THE INNER PERSON is the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by Mary Calkins (1863-1930), who studied memory in the unconscious inner forces over which the individual has early part of the 20th century, became the first female little control. They view dreams and slips of the tongue president of the American Psychological Association. (sometimes termed a Freudian slip) as indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething Karen Horney (pronounced "HORN-eye") (1885-1952) cauldron of unconscious psychic activity. The origins of focused on the social and cultural factors behind the psychodynamic view are linked to one person: personality. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about unconscious determinants of June Etta Downey (1875-1932) spearheaded the study behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th-century of personality traits and became the first woman to thinking, not just in psychology but in related fields as head a psychology department at a state university. well. Anna Freud (1895-1982), the daughter of Sigmund THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE: OBSERVING THE Freud, also made notable contributions to the OUTER PERSON is the approach that suggests that treatment of abnormal behaviour. observable, measurable behavior should bethe focus of study. The external behavior that can be observed Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) carried out and measured objectively. John B. Watson was the pioneering work on how children of color grew first major American psychologist to use a behavioral torecognize racial differences (Lal, 2002; Galdi, 2015). approach. Working in the 1920s, Watson believed that one could gain a complete understanding of behavior by studying the environment in which a person operated. The behavioral perspective was how much of our behavior is caused by heredity and championed by B. F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field. how much is caused by environmental influences. B.F. Skinner was the 20th century's most influential psychologist, pioneering the science of behaviorism. Issue 2: Conscious versus unconscious causes of Inventor of the Skinner Box, he discovered the power behaviour - How much of our behavior is produced by of positive reinforcement in leaming, and he designed forces of which we are fully aware, and how much is the first psychological experiments to give due to unconscious activity-mental processes that are quantitatively repeatable and predictable results. not accessible to the conscious mind? For example, clinical psychologists adopting a psychodynamic THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: IDENTIFYING THE perspective argue that psychological disorders are ROOTS OF UNDERSTANDING focuses on how people brought about by unconscious factors, whereas think, understand, and know about the world. The psychologists employing the cognitive perspective emphasis is on learning how people comprehend and suggest that psychological disorders largely are the represent the outside world within themselves and result of faulty thinking processes. Issue 3: Observable how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior ver sus internal mental processes. Should behaviour. psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on unseen THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE: THE UNIQUE thinking processes? Some psychologists, particularly QUALITIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES suggests that all those relying on the behavioral perspective, contend individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in that the only legitimate source of information for control of their lives and behavior. Humanistic psychologists is behavior that can be observed directly. psychologists maintain that each of us has the capacity Other psychologists, building on the cognitive to seek and reach fulfillment. perspective, argue that what goes on inside a person's According to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who mind is critical to understanding behavior, and so we were central figures in the development of the must concern ourselves with mental processes. humanistic perspective, people strive to reach their full Issue 4: Free will versus determinism. How much of potential if they are given the opportunity. The our behavior is a matter of free will (choices made emphasis of the humanistic perspective is on free will, freely by an individual), and how much is subject to the ability to freely make decisions about one's own determinism, the notion that behavior is largely behavior and life. The notion of free will stands in produced by factors beyond people's willful control? contrast to determinism, which sees behavior as For example, some psychologists who specialize in caused, or determined, by things beyond a person's psychological disorders argue that people make control. intentional choices and that those who display so- The humanistic perspective assumes that people have called abnormal behavior should be considered the ability to make their own choices about their responsible for their actions Other psychologists behavior rather than relying on societal standards. disagree and contend that such individuals are the victims of forces beyond their control. The position PSYCHOLOGY'S KEY ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES psychologists take on this issue has important Issue 1: Nature (heredity) ver sus nurture implications for the way they treat psychological (environment) How much of people's behavior is due disorders, especially in deciding whether treatment to their genetically determined nature (heredity), and should be forced on people who don't want it. how much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is Issue 5: Individual differences ver sus universal raised? A psychologist's take on this issue depends principles. Specifically, how much of our behavior is a partly on which major perspective he or she subscribes consequence of our unique and special qualities the to. For example, developmental psychologists whose individual differences that differentiate us from other focus is on how people grow and change throughout people? Conversely, how much reflects the culture and the course of their lives may be most interested in society in which we live, stemming from universal learning more about hereditary influences if they principles that underlie the behavior of all follow a neuroscience perspective. In contrast, humans?Psychologists who rely on the neuroscience developmental psychologists who are proponents of perspective tend to look for universal principles of the behavioral perspective are more likely to focus on behavior, such as how the nervous system operates or environment. However, every psychologist would the way certain hormones automatically prime us for agree that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole sexual activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the determinant of behavior, rather, it is a combination of similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast the two. In a sense, then, the real controversy involves differences in our upbringing. In contrast, psychologists who employ the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual.They consider every person to take care of themselves, there will be a person's behavior a reflection of distinct and special tendency to develop hope. The child will have hope individual qualities. that someone is there to take care of them. Key issues in psychology and the positions taken by (Will) autonomy vs shame & doubt- early childhood psychologists subscribing to the five major level by the age of 2-4 yrs old children are trying to gain perspectives of autonomy, which can lead to either positive self- confidence or negative feelings of shame and doubt. They may show this by wanting to draw on walls, as it helps them explore. However, if they are often scolded, they may become afraid to act on their own, waiting for instructions from parents instead. This can create a personality that lacks independence and feels unsure. To help children develop self-confidence, it’s important to encourage their exploration. Constantly scolding them can make them feel like they can’t do anything right and stop them from taking initiative. (Purpose) iniative vs guilt- At the third level during preschool, around ages 4-5, children begin to discover ways to initiate actions, like helping others or socializing with peers. In the previous stage, autonomy THE DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF A PERSON versus shame and doubt, children developed a sense of autonomy. Now, they have initiative because they feel THE TWO PROMINT THEORIES which is very important independent. The main value here is developing a in understanding in the development of human sense of purpose, where children start to identify their person. interests and strengths. For example, looking back at pyschosocial development by erikson's according to childhood, some classmates excelled in subjects like him our development as a person doesn't stop at the math or English, while others, including possibly age of 5yrs so according to him our development yourself, might not have known their strengths, depevelop up to our intend indicating that their sense of initiative may not have fully during your development stage. (wisdom) ego integrity vs despair - last stage of (Competence) industry and inferiority psychosocial development is extended up to 65+ yrs In the fourth stage, occurring between ages 5 and 12, maturity and above. children develop a sense of competence, self- confidence, and self-esteem. On the other hand, Hope (Trust & Mistrust) -The first stage of psychosocial feelings of inferiority arise when there is a lack of development starts from 0 to 2 years old, a period mastery. If a child fails to discover their purpose, which where a baby's trust in their caregiver is very evident. stems from the previous stage of autonomy versus For example, we notice during childhood that there are shame and doubt, they may feel inferior. This can some children (nangingilala) because they do not see happen if they have not developed independence the person carrying them as trustworthy; they only because they are often dictated by their parents. recognize their mother as trustworthy. In this stage, there are positive and negative outcomes. For (Fidelity) identity vs role confusion on fifth stage example, in the trust vs. mistrust dynamic, what during adolescene period 13- 19 yrs old The positive Erikson is trying to say in his theory is that we must outcome is gaining awareness of the uniqueness of self develop the first word (trust). Failure to nurture and and knowledge of the roles to be followed. In short, by satisfy this trust will result in mistrust.So, what will be establishing your purpose and competence, you the outcome if a child develops mistrust? There is fear identify who you really are. This means that when and concern regarding others. To better understand someone asks you about yourself, you won't struggle how psychosocial development works, the negative to introduce yourself because your identity is clear; it impact developed in a child from 0 to 2 years old, if is not temporary but a perceived identity based on your mistrust dominates, means that throughout their previous experiences. On the other hand, if role lifetime, they will live in fear and doubt. Probably, the confusion dominates, the negative outcome is an child will develop a vigilant personality. The personality inability to identify appropriate roles in our lives, such that the person will develop at the first level in trust vs. as understanding where you excel, what you truly mistrust is hope. If a person is able to trust another want, and who you really are. Some analysts of psychosocial development suggest that this stage also they can experience pleasure so may mga sinasabe si manifests gender orientation, gender sexuality, and sigmund freud kapag ang bata ay di napagbigyan ang gender preference, though only a few experts claim oral pleasure drives niya during 0 to 2 years old this occurs here. nagkakaroon ng fixation its a scenario wherein the pleasure during specific stage were not satisfy kaya (Love) intimacy vs isolation during young adulthood by nadadala sa adulthood behavior sila yung nagnanail the age of 20- 40 yrs old The positive outcome in this biting, kinakagat yung ballpen, mahilig manigarilyo, stage is the development of loving, sexual relationships lollipop etc. and close friendships, which is very healthy because we're social animals and always need to socialize with 2. Anal Stage 1 year to 3 years other people. The idea that "human is an island" means dito natututo ng proper bowl training pag di naturuan that you are confident you can now classify yourself in magiging burara in this stage dapat tinuturuan siya terms of who you’re going to be friends with, etc. On ayusin sarili toothbrush, maghugas pwet, hindi dapat the other hand, when our isolation becomes more kung saan saan iihi etc. dominant, we become afraid to engage in relationships with other people; you don’t know what kind of person 3. Phallic Stage 3years to 6years dito nabubuo ang you want to be with or be friends with. So the main affection sa parents according to sigmund freud dito value that we are trying to develop here is love. nabubuo yung gender identity a male child fall in love in mother ang tawag don ay edipus complex pag (Care) generativity vs stagnation is the middle nakikita ng male na anak yung nanay at tatay adulthood stage at the 20-40 yrs old The positive naglalambingan is nagagalit kasi tinurinh niya yung outcome of generativity is contributing to the tatay niya na karibal sa pagmamahal sa kanyang nanay continuity of life, while the negative outcome is electra complex sa babae naman same lang sila stagnation and the trivialization of past activities. For maiinlove ka sa kaugali ng parents mo magkakaroon ng example, in generativity, individuals care for others, fixation panguna magiging mama's boy and papa's boy such as grandparents who often cherish their even in a adultage second is magiging homosexual di grandchildren more than their own children, reflecting nagestablish yung gender role niya a concern for their family lineage. In contrast, 4. Latent Stage 6years to Puberty stagnation indicates selfishness and self-centeredness, ang ating erogonous ay hindi na nagcicirculate within where people may struggle financially, often sacrificing the family because lumalabas na tayo by this time we their own needs to ensure their children are cared for, are becoming social individual and extroverted emphasizing the importance of care in this stage. nakikipaghanap na ng kalaro yung erogonous natin ay nakafocus sa socialization nagkakaron din ito ng Wisdom (ero intergrity vs despair)In the stage of late fixation sa stage na to ito ang mga taong introvert adulthood, specifically regarding ego integrity versus despair, individuals develop a sense of unity and 5. Genital Stage Puberty to Adulthood fulfillment in their life accomplishments. For instance, romantic relationship na to 12 and above kahit anong one might feel content with their life, having no regrets gender ata sinabe ni sigmund freud wala nasabe daw from infancy to the present. Being content does not necessarily mean having material wealth; for example, a parent's greatest achievement might be seeing their children graduate, even if they themselves did not complete their education.On the other hand, a person experiencing despair may regret lost opportunities in life and feel regret over various choices. For example, they might prioritize career advancement over caring for their grandchildren, leading to feelings of disappointment and sorrow. Personality Development Theory by Sigmund Freud that the person develop base on the 5 stage of Psychosexual Stages of Development 1. Oral Stage Birth to 1 year (sabi ay 2 daw yan hehe) the pleasure is center in the mouth called (erogonous zone) sa mga bata wala silang pake kung malinis or madumi, mabaho basta isusubo nila because that is point where WEEK 4: NEUROSCIENCE AND On the opposite side of every neuron is a long, slim, BEHAVIOR tube-like extension called an axon. The axon carries messages received by the dendrites to other Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior neurons. The axon is considerably longer than the The Structure of the Neuron - Playing the piano, rest of the neuron. Although most axons are several driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depends, at one millimeters in length, some are as long as 3 feet. level, on exact muscle coordination. But if we Axons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, consider how the muscles can be activated so which send messages to other neurons. precisely, we see that more fundamental processes To prevent messages from short-circuiting one are involved. For the muscles to produce the another, axons must be insulated in some fashion complex movements that make up any meaningful (just as electrical wires must be insulated). Most physical activity, the brain has to provide the right axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a messages to them and coordinate those messages. protective coating of fat and protein that wraps Such messages—as well as those that enable us to around the axon like the casing on links of sausage. think, remember, and experience emotion—are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Notes ni reysen ganda: Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. NUCLEUS- controls the entire neutron integral. (Neuron is messenger) DENDRITES- adjacent, receive signal directly connected sa cell body (kamay) AXON HILOCK- dugtungan 70 milivolts electrification AXON- mahaba (highway) MYELIN SHEATH- (yung blue) fastens the transmission of electrical and chemical impulses AXON TERMINAL- dulo sya papuntang other Like most cells in the body, neurons have a cell cells body that contains a nucleus. The nucleus incorporates the hereditary material that determines SCHWANN CELL- responsible for production of how a cell will function. Neurons are physically myelin sheath. (yung bilog sa loob) held in place by glial cells. Glial cells provide NODES OF RANVIER- gaps sa pagitan, nourishment to neurons, insulate them, help repair diffusion of ions. Parang magnet (positive and damage, and generally support neural functioning negative) tas kapag same negative symbol is (Bassotti et al., 2007; Bassotti & Villanacci, 2011; neutralized. Toft et al., 2013). — In contrast to most other cells, however, neurons have a distinctive feature: the ability to How Neurons Fire - communicate with other cells and transmit Like a gun, neurons either fire—that is, transmit an information across relatively long distances. Many electrical impulse along the axon— or don’t fire. of the body’s neurons receive signals from the There is no in-between stage, just as pulling harder environment or relay the nervous system’s on a gun trigger doesn’t make the bullet travel messages to muscles and other target cells, but the faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none vast majority of neurons communicate only with law: They are either on or off, with nothing in other neurons in the elaborate information system between the on state and the off state. When there that regulates behaviour is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. As shown, there’s a cluster of fibers at the end of Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in every neuron that are called dendrites. Dendrites, a resting state—it has a negative electrical charge which look like the twisted branches of a tree, are of about −70 millivolts (a millivolt is one 1 /1,000 the part of the neuron that receives messages from of a volt). This charge is caused by the presence of other neurons. more negatively charged ions within the neuron than outside it. When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow feelings of concern, compassion, and sympathy for positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as others— and even the development of language in 100 million ions per second. The sudden arrival of humans (Ramachandra, 2009; Rogalsky et al., these positive ions causes the charge within the 2011; Lim & Okuno, 2015). nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge Some researchers suggest an even broader role for reaches a critical level, the “trigger” is pulled, and mirror neurons. For example, mirror neurons, an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, which respond to sound, appear to be related to travels along the axon of the neuron speech perception and language comprehension. Furthermore, stimulating the mirror neuron system The action potential moves from one end of the can help stroke victims as well and may prove to be axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. helpful for those with emotional problems by As the impulse travels along the axon, the helping them to develop greater empathy movement of ions causes a change in charge from (Ehrenfeld, 2011; Gallese et al., 2011). negative to positive in successive sections of the axon. After the impulse has passed through a Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap - If you particular section of the axon, positive ions are have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that pumped out of that section, and its charge returns each part is physically connected to another part. In to negative while the action potential continues to contrast, evolution has produced a neural move along the axon. transmission system that at some points has no need for a structural connection between its Just after an action potential has passed through a components. Instead, a chemical connection section of the axon, the cell membrane in that bridges the gap, known as a synapse, between two region cannot admit positive ions again for a few neurons. The synapse is the space between two milliseconds, and so a neuron cannot fire again neurons where the axon of a sending neuron immediately no matter how much stimulation it communicates with the dendrites of a receiving receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow & each shot. There then follows a period in which, Poulos, 2005; Dean & Dresbach, 2006). though it is possible for the neuron to fire, a stronger stimulus is needed than would be if the STEP 1: Neurotransmitters are produced and neuron had reached its normal resting state. stored in the axon. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire STEP 2: If an action potential arrives, the axon again. releases neurotransmitters. STEP 3: Neurotransmitters travel across the MIRROR NEURONS - Although all neurons synapse to the receptor site on another neuron’s operate through the firing of action potentials, there dendrite. is significant specialization among different types of neurons. For example, neuroscientists have STEP 4: When the neurotransmitter fits into a discovered the existence of mirror neurons, receptor site, it delivers an excitatory or neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a inhibitory message. If enough excitatory messages particular behavior but also when a person simply are delivered, the neuron will fire. observes another individual carrying out the same behavior (Khalil, 2011; Spaulding, 2013; Brucker et al., 2015). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when we view someone doing something, helping us to predict what their goals are and what they may do next. The discovery of mirror neurons suggests that the capacity of even young children to imitate others When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon may be an inborn behavior. Furthermore, mirror and reaches a terminal button, the terminal button neurons may be at the root of empathy—those releases a chemical courier called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals longer period at certain synapses in the brain, that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite thereby reducing the symptoms of depression (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving (Guiard et al., 2011; Hilton et al., 2013). neuron. Like a boat that ferries passengers across a river, these chemical messengers move toward the Notes ni reysen ganda: shorelines of other neurons. The chemical mode of Mirror Neurons- Kunwari nagfu-function sya message transmission that occurs between neurons pero hindi. Nafe-feel yung hindi naman nangyari is strikingly different from the means by which sayo. It provides us a feeling despite the fact that communication occurs inside neurons: Although we are not the person who experienced the messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, stimuli. they move between neurons through a chemical transmission system Ex. nag skateboard nahulog hagdan tumama tas nabalian buto. (Cyrus miracle boy reaction) naimagine nya yung nangyare. If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers Ex. Indian street foods (kaderder “parang magkaka is basically one of two types: excitatory or diarrhea ako”) inhibitory. Excitatory messages are chemical Ex. tiktok sa ingrown messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. In contrast, inhibitory messages do The GAP between neuron to neuron is called just the opposite: inhibitory messages provide SYNAPSE. chemical information that prevents or decreases the (touch dulo ng daliri– nararamdaman natin because likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. ang fire ng electrical signal ang neuron papuntang Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both brain at pabalik) excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a ex. sampal kamay—namula kind of chemical calculator. Put simply, if the excitatory messages (“Fire!”) outnumber the inhibitory ones (“Don’t fire!”), the neuron fires. In NEUROTRANSMITTERS are not responsible contrast, if the inhibitory messages outnumber the for our emotions. (bilog bilog na maliliit. Less excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron effective ito during anesthesia (dentist- gums not remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002; Rapport, teeth) numbness inhibits neuro function 2005; Flavell et al., 2006). For neurons- B complex— Oldies drink this If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the because of neurodegeneration, makakalimutin, synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a Alzheimer's, delirium. ex. Joe Biden continual chemical bath, producing constant NeuroCognitive Disorders— dahil sa katandaan stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving based on severity. (inheritable) neurons—and effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible. To avoid this — problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical by enzymes or—more commonly—reabsorbed by Couriers - Neurotransmitters are a particularly the terminal button in an example of chemical important link between the nervous system recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner and behavior. Not only are they important for sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the maintaining vital brain and body functions, but neurotransmitters that are now clogging the a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter synapse. All this activity occurs at lightning speed, can produce severe behavior disorders. More with the process taking just several milliseconds than a hundred chemicals have been found to (Helmuth, 2000; Holt & Jahn, 2004). Our act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists understanding of the process of reuptake has believe that more may ultimately be identified. permitted the development of a number of drugs The major neurotransmitters and their effects used in the treatment of psychological disorders. are described in Figure 5 (Penney, 2000; Some antidepressant drugs, called SSRIs, or Schmidt, 2006) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, permit certain neurotransmitters to remain active for a  Acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical sleep, eating, mood, and pain. A symbol) – the most common growing body of research points toward neurotransmitter, is found throughout a broader role for serotonin, suggesting the nervous system. ACh is involved in its involvement in such diverse our every move, because—among behaviors as alcoholism, depression, other things—it transmits messages suicide, impulsivity, aggression, and relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh coping with stress (Murray et al., 2008; is also involved in memory capabilities, Popa et al., 2008; Carrillo et al., 2009). and diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease (Mohapel et al., 2005; Bazalakova et Endorphins - another class of al., 2007; Van der Zee, Platt, & Riedel, 2011). neurotransmitters, are a family of chemicals produced by the brain that are similar in structure to painkilling drugs such as morphine. The Glutamate - another common production of endorphins reflects the excitatory neurotransmitter, plays a role brain’s effort to deal with pain as well as in memory. Memories appear to be to elevate mood. Endorphins also may produced by specific biochemical produce the euphoric feelings that changes at particular synapses, and runners sometimes experience after glutamate, along with other long runs. The exertion and perhaps the neurotransmitters, plays an important pain involved in a long run may role in this process (Winters & Bussey, stimulate the production of endorphins, 2005; Micheau & Marighetto, 2011; ultimately resulting in what has been Solomonia & McCabe, 2015). called “runner’s high” (Kolata, 2002; Pert, 2002; Stanojevic, Mitic, & Vujic, 2007). Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)- Endorphin release might also explain other which is found in both the brain and the phenomena that have long puzzled spinal cord, appears to be the nervous psychologists. For example, the act of taking system’s primary inhibitory placebos (pills or other substances that neurotransmitter. It moderates a variety contain no actual drugs but that patients of behaviors, ranging from eating to believe will make them better) may induce the aggression. Several common release of endorphins, leading to the reduction substances, such as the tranquilizer of pain (Wager, 2005; Rajagopal, 2006; Crum Valium and alcohol, are effective & Langer, 2007). because they permit GABA to operate more efficiently (Ball, 2004; Criswell et al., 2008; Lobo & Harris, 2008). Notes ni reysen ganda: Monosodium glutamate MSG betsin, magic sarap- walang lasa kase sa Dopamine (DA) - another major tounge iyon, enhance the taste, chemical sa neurotransmitter, which is involved in dila mas active at sensitive kaya mas malasa. movement, attention, and learning. The discovery that certain drugs can have a Acetylcholine significant effect on dopamine release Glutamate is present in depressed has led to the development of effective patients. treatments for a wide variety of physical Gamma moderates a variety of and mental ailments. behaviors ranging from eating to aggression, also present in depressed people, tranquilizer, alcohol, not advisable to drink when broken Serotonin - another neurotransmitter, because alcohol is depressants. is associated with the regulation of  Dopamine is happiness, kaya present the back. It is the primary means for sa drugs kase it makes people happy transmitting messages between the brain and and elevates mood (ex. shabu, the rest of the body. marijuana) na mababa sa taong depressed kaya ang anti-depressants However, the spinal cord is not just a ay may dopamine to increase communication channel. It also controls some dopamine level simple behaviors on its own, without any help Serotonin- diverse behaviors such as from the brain. An example is the way the knee alcoholism, depression, suicide, jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber aggression and coping with stress hammer. Low serotonin = High cortisol This behavior is a type of reflex, an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming Cortisol is responsible for stress stimulus. A reflex is also at work when you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw ex. student umiiyak dahil bagsak exam your hand. Although the brain eventually ay possibly mataas cortisol analyzes and reacts to the situation (“Ouch— Endorphins- Death seeking behavior hot stove—pull away!”), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. ex. cliff jumping, conquer fear Several kinds of neurons are involved in takot ako— sumakay pa rin— ay reflexes: masaya pala… (this is because of spike of endorphins) Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to The Nervous System and the the central nervous system and the brain. For Endocrine System: Communicating example, touching a hot stove sends a Within the Body message to the brain (hot!) via sensory neurons. The Nervous System: Linking Motor (efferent) neurons communicate Neurons information in the opposite direction, from the brain and nervous system to muscles and CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS glands. When the brain sends a message to SYSTEMS the muscles of the hand (hot—move away!), the message travels via motor neurons. The importance of the spinal cord and reflexes is illustrated by the outcome of accidents in which the cord is injured or severed. In some cases, injury results in quadriplegia, a condition in which people lose voluntary muscle movement below the neck. In a less severe but still debilitating condition, paraplegia, people are unable to voluntarily move any muscles in the lower half of the body. The nervous system is divided into two main The peripheral nervous system branches parts: the central nervous system and the out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches peripheral nervous system. The central the extremities of the body. Made up of nervous system (CNS) is composed of the neurons with long axons and dendrites, the brain and spinal cord. peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the The spinal cord, which is about the thickness brain and spinal cord. There are two major of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that divisions of the peripheral nervous system— leaves the brain and runs down the length of the somatic division and the autonomic division—both of which connect the central two parts of the autonomic nervous system: nervous system with the sense organs, the sympathetic division. The sympathetic muscles, glands, and other organs. division acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations by engaging all of the Somatic division of the peripheral organism’s resources to run away or to nervous system specializes in the confront the threat. This is often called the control of voluntary movements, such “fight-or-flight” response as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to scroll In contrast, the parasympathetic division down a page. The somatic division also acts to calm the body after the emergency communicates information to and from has ended. When you find, for instance, that the sense organs. the stranger at the window is actually your Autonomic division of the peripheral roommate, who has lost his keys and is nervous system controls the parts of the climbing in the window to avoid waking you, body that keep us alive— the heart, your parasympathetic division begins to take blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other over, lowering your heart rate, stopping your organs that function involuntarily sweating, and returning your body to the state without our awareness. As you are it was in before you became alarmed. The reading at this moment, the autonomic parasympathetic division also directs the body division of the peripheral nervous to store energy for use in emergencies. system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system encompasses the network of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. Notes ni reysen ganda: Nervous System Main organ is brain Spinal cord is the converging point where all nerves of the peripheral nervous system are connected. ACTIVATING THE DIVISIONS OF THE Nerves is for nervous system AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Veins is for circulatory system (sa The autonomic division plays a particularly dugo) crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading you suddenly sense General anesthesia sa kuyukot banda that a stranger is watching you through the window. As you look up, you see the glint of NS divided into two system something that might be a knife. As confusion 1. Central Nervous System - consist of the clouds your mind and fear overcomes your brain and spinal cord. attempts to think rationally, what happens to your body? If you are like most people, you ps. iba ang spinal cord sa back bone, react immediately on a physiological level. the spinal cord is acting as a wire. Your heart rate increases, you begin to sweat, and you develop goose bumps all over your body. 2. Peripheral Nervous System - has 2 The physiological changes that occur during a types, the somatic and automatic. crisis result from the activation of one of the  to them. Ultimately, a portion of the spinal cord evolved into what we would consider a 1. Somantic- Voluntary primitive brain. ex. you consciously move your hands, you are Today, the nervous system is hierarchically in control. organized, meaning that relatively newer (from an evolutionary point of view) and more 2. Autonomic- sophisticated regions of the brain regulate the Involuntary older, and more primitive, parts of the nervous It focuses on the function of a specific part of system. As we move up along the spinal cord the organ of our body that is involuntary and and continue upward into the brain, then, the automatically moving. functions controlled by the various regions become progressively more advanced. ex. digestion, heart pumping, urination, lungs (kase nagreresist) Why should we care about the evolutionary background of the human nervous system? Autonomic divided into 2 types The answer comes from researchers working ex. ex gf kakabreak lang tas nakita in the area of evolutionary psychology, the kasama boybespren daw branch of psychology that seeks to identify how behavior is influenced and produced by Sympathetic - (sipa) we tend to utilize our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. our energy. sa ex ay galit na galit ka Evolutionary psychologists argue that the nag-iinit katawan mo. course of evolution is reflected in the structure and functioning of the nervous system and that another ex. lola nanalo sa lotto– evolutionary factors consequently have a nadeads (heighten ang emotions that significant influence on our everyday utilize energy) high emotions constrict behaviour. or constructed ang ating vessels sa puso, pag- extreme ang emotions, ang Evolutionary psychologists have spawned a heart ay lumalaki kase it requires a lot new and increasingly influential field: of oxygen. behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics is the study of the effects of heredity on behavior. Parasympathetic - (parang sipa) you Consistent with the evolutionary perspective, tend to conserve your energy. sa ex. behavioral genetics researchers are finding (ansakit sa dibdib) nanggigigil yung isa increasing evidence that cognitive abilities, jan. personality traits, sexual orientation, and — psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors (Schermer et The Evolutionary Foundations of the al., 2011; Maxson, 2013; Appelbaum, Scurich, Nervous System & Raad, 2015) The complexities of the nervous system can The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and be better understood if we take the course of Glands evolution into consideration. The forerunner of the human nervous system is found in the Another of the body’s communication systems, earliest simple organisms to have a spinal the endocrine system is a chemical cord. Basically, those organisms were simple communication network that sends messages input-output devices: When the upper side of throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its the spinal cord was stimulated by, for instance, job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that being touched, the organism reacted with a circulate through the blood and regulate the simple response, such as jerking away. Such functioning or growth of the body. It also responses were completely a consequence of influences—and is influenced by—the the organism’s genetic makeup. functioning of the nervous system. Although the endocrine system is not part of the brain, it Over millions of years, the spinal cord became is closely linked to the hypothalamus. more specialized, and organisms became capable of distinguishing between different As chemical messengers, hormones are like kinds of stimuli and responding appropriately neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different. potentially dangerous side effects, health Whereas neural messages are measured in experts now warn that in many cases the thousandths of a second, hormonal dangers outweigh the benefits (Alexandersen, communications may take minutes to reach Karsdal, & Christiansen, 2009; Jacobs et al., their destination. Furthermore, neural 2013; Doty et al., 2015). The use of messages move through neurons in specific testosterone, a male hormone, and drugs lines (like a signal carried by wires strung known as steroids, which act like testosterone, along telephone poles), whereas hormones is increasingly common. For athletes and travel throughout the body, similar to the way others who want to bulk up their appearance, radio waves are transmitted across the entire steroids provide a way to add muscle weight landscape. Just as radio waves evoke a and increase strength. However, these drugs response only when a radio is tuned to the can lead to stunted growth, shrinking of the correct station, hormones flowing through the testicles, heart attacks, strokes, and cancer, bloodstream activate only those cells that are making them extremely dangerous. receptive and “tuned” to the appropriate Furthermore, they can even produce violent hormonal message. behavior. For example, in one tragic case, professional wrestler Chris Benoit strangled A key component of the endocrine system is his wife, suffocated his son, and later hanged the tiny pituitary gland, which is found near— himself—acts that were attributed to his use of and regulated by—the hypothalamus in the steroids (Klötz, Garle, & Granath, 2006; brain. The pituitary gland has sometimes been Pagonis, Angelopoulos, & Koukoulis, 2006; called the “master gland” because it controls Sandomir, 2007) the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. But the pituitary gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands; it has Notes ni reysen ganda: important functions in its own right. For instance, hormones secreted by the pituitary The Endocrine System gland control growth. Extremely short people The main organ of the endocrine system is and unusually tall ones usually have pituitary the hypothalamus, however the pituitary gland abnormalities. Other endocrine glands, gland is the master gland because the pituitary affect emotional reactions, sexual urges, and gland controls the release of hormones of energy levels. various organs of the endocrine system. Testes produces testosterone ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone. Ang mga lalaki ay meron ding progesterone, ang babae ay may testosterone rin. Testosterone plays in human body Despite its designation as the “master gland,” babae mataas testosterone ay the pituitary is actually a servant of the brain, mabalahibo sa binti, boyish ang built ng because the brain is ultimately responsible for body (possibly maging tomboy) the endocrine system’s functioning. The brain maintains the internal balance of the body Progesterone and estrogen through the hypothalamus. Although lalake mataas ang progesterone at hormones are produced naturally by the estrogen ay sobrang kinis, walang endocrine system, the ingestion of artificial buhok sa binti. (possibly nagiging hormones has proved to be both beneficial bading) and potentially dangerous. For example, before the early 2000s, physicians frequently 2 manifestations of high level of hormones in prescribed hormone replacement therapy the body (HRT) to treat symptoms of menopause in 1. it will have an impact to the body older women. However, because recent (physical) research suggests that the treatment has  2. behavioral Ex. mga transexual na malalaki ang boobs– umiinom ng pills. Ex. Charice pempengco inject testosterone Pituitary gland is also responsible for sleep. Pineal gland surrounding the hypothalamus region that releases melatonin. Melatonin is a sleep hormone, ito yung nagpapaantok saatin and activated tuwing madilim. If may light pa na nakikita, the pineal gland will not release melatonin. Same with sleeping pills, it will only work if madilim. Light prevents the pineal gland from releasing melatonin. Using these techniques, investigators can take a “snapshot” of the internal workings of the brain without having to cut open a person’s skull. The most important scanning techniques The Brain are the electroencephalogram (EEG), The brain is responsible for our loftiest positron emission tomography (PET), thoughts—and our most primitive urges. It is functional magnetic resonance imaging the overseer of the intricate workings of the (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic human body. If one were to attempt to design stimulation imaging (TMS). a computer to mimic the range of capabilities Electroencephalogram (EEG) - of the brain, the task would be nearly records electrical activity in the brain impossible; in fact, it has proved difficult even through electrodes placed on the to come close. The sheer quantity of nerve outside of the skull. Although cells in the brain is enough to daunt even the traditionally the EEG could produce most ambitious computer engineer. Many only a graph of electrical wave patterns, billions of neurons make up a structure new techniques are now used to weighing just 3 pounds in the average adult. transform the brain’s electrical activity However, it is not the number of cells that is into a pictorial representation of the the most astounding thing about the brain but brain that allows more precise its ability to allow the human intellect to flourish diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy by guiding our behavior and thoughts. and learning disabilities. The brain has posed a continual challenge to Functional magnetic resonance those who would study it. For most of history, imaging (fMRI) - provide a detailed, its examination was possible only after an three-dimensional computer-generated individual had died. Only then could the skull image of brain structures and activity by be opened and the brain cut into without aiming a powerful magnetic field at the serious injury. Although informative, this body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible procedure could hardly tell us much about the to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the healthy brain. functioning of the brain. Using fMRI scans, researchers are able to view features of less than a millimeter in size and view changes occurring in intervals of 1 ⁄ 10 of a second. For example, fMRI scans can show the operation of individual bundles of nerves by tracing the flow of blood, opening the way for improved diagnosis of ailments ranging from chronic back pain to nervous system disorders such as strokes, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s. Scans using fMRI are routinely used in  planning brain surgery, because they Notes ni reysen ganda: can help surgeons distinguish areas of the brain involved in normal and fMRI - most advanced, it scans your brain in 3D. disturbed functioning (Loitfelder et al., It records the functions. 2011; Hurschler et al., 2015). St. luke’s medical center- the only hospital that Positron emission tomography offers fMRI. (PET) - show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET scans Limbic system- basta nasa loob ng brain, begin with the injection of a radioactive responsible sa balance. (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, Cerebrum is the outer part of the brain. which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a Brain ay may balat, yun ang cerebral cortex. computer can determine which are the 1st layer of protection is skin, more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work. For 2nd is Skull example, PET scans may be used in cases of memory problems, seeking to 3rd is pia mater, dura mater identify the presence of brain tumors 4th cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) liquid na parang (Gronholm et al., 2005; McMurtray et sabaw ng lomi and it absorbs the shock and al., 2007). moisturizes the brain (pag nauntog depends on Transcranial magnetic stimulation impact level ay di mamamatay ang tao). (TMS) - exposes a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, thereby Brain stem ay nasa batok. causing a momentary interruption of ex. nagpupuyat kakaaral, nakakamatay kase electrical activity. Researchers then are nagddry ang CSF and brain. (liliit ang brain— deds able to note the effects of this ka) interruption on normal brain functioning. One of the newest procedures used to study the brain, TMS is sometimes called a “virtual Frontal lobe- counscious mental lesion,” because it produces effects processing, decision making, problem similar to what would occur if areas of solving and speaking. (nandito si broca) the brain were physically cut. The nagsasalita ako because my broca’s area is enormous advantage of TMS, of fuctioning. course, is that the virtual cut is only temporary. In addition to identifying Temporal lobe - language comprehension areas of the brain that are responsible and speech development. for particular functions, TMS has the (nagkakaintindihan tayo because of potential to treat certain kinds of temporal lobe) (nandito si wernicke) psychological disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia, by nagkakaintindihan tayo sa class because shooting brief magnetic pulses through our wernicke's area is functioning the brain (Pallanti & Bernardi, 2009; Parietal lobe- motor complex, balance. Prasser et al., 2015). Occipital lobe- vision, sight. Deaf and hard of hearing - problematic ang wernicke’s area, may konting naririnig pero walang naiintindihan. —  analysis and coordination of sensory information to problem solving (Paquier & Mariën, 2005; Vandervert, Schimpf, & Liu, 2007; Swain, Kerr, & Thompson, 2011). The reticular formation extends from the medulla through the pons, passing through the middle section of the brain—or midbrain—and into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Like an ever-vigilant guard, the reticular formation produces general arousal of our body. If, for example, we are startled by a loud noise, the reticular formation can prompt a heightened state of awareness to determine whether a response is necessary. The reticular formation also helps regulate our sleep-wake cycle by filtering out The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” background stimuli to allow us to sleep undisturbed. Although the capabilities of the human brain far exceed those of the brain of any other species, The thalamus, which is hidden within the humans share some basic functions, such as forebrain, acts primarily as a relay station for breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more information about the senses. Messages from the primitive animals. Not surprisingly, those activities eyes, ears, and skin travel to the thalamus to be are directed by a relatively primitive part of the communicated upward to higher parts of the brain. brain. A portion of the brain known as the central The thalamus also integrates information from core, is quite similar in all vertebrates (species higher parts of the brain, sorting it out so that it can with backbones). The central core is sometimes be sent to the cerebellum and medulla. referred to as the “old brain,” because its evolution The hypothalamus is located just below the can be traced back some 500 million years to thalamus. Although tiny—about the size of a primitive structures found in nonhuman species. fingertip—the hypothalamus plays an extremely If we were to move up the spinal cord from the base important role. One of its major functions is to of the skull to locate the structures of the central maintain homeostasis, a steady internal core of the brain, the first part we would come to environment for the body. The hypothalamus would be the hindbrain, which contains the helps provide a constant body temperature and medulla, pons, and cerebellum. The medulla monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the controls a number of critical body functions, the cells. A second major function is equally most important of which are breathing and important: the hypothalamus produces and heartbeat. The pons is a bridge in the hindbrain. regulates behavior that is critical to the basic Containing large bundles of nerves, the pons acts survival of the species, such as eating, self- as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating protection, and sex. muscles and integrating movement between the right and left halves of the body. It is also involved in regulating sleep. The cerebellum extends from the rear of the hindbrain. Without the help of the cerebellum we would be unable to walk a straight line without staggering and lurching forward, for it is the job of the cerebellum to control bodily balance. It constantly monitors feedback from the muscles to coordinate their placement, movement, and tension. In fact, drinking too much alcohol seems to depress the activity of the cerebellum, leading to the unsteady gait and movement characteristic of drunkenness. The cerebellum is also involved in several intellectual functions, ranging from the The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core the “animal brain,” because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals. To identify the part of the brain that provides the complex and subtle capabilities that are uniquely human, we need to turn to another structure—the cerebral cortex. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” The cerebral cortex is referred to as the “new brain” because of its relatively recent evolution. It consists of four major sections called lobes. Each lobe has specialized areas that relate to particular functions. If we take a side view of the brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower-center portion of the cortex, with the occipital lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep Limbic system is the part of the brain that controls grooves called sulci. eating, aggression, and reproduction. Consisting of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdala and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex. Injury to the limbic system can produce striking changes in behavior. For example, injury to the amygdala, which is involved in fear and aggression, can turn animals that are usually docile and tame into belligerent savages. Conversely, animals that are usually wild and uncontrollable may become meek and obedient following injury to the amygdala (Gontkovsky, 2005; Smith et al., 2013; Reznikova et al., 2015). The cerebral cortex of the brain. The major physical structures of the cerebral cortex are called The limbic system and hippocampus, in lobes. This figure also illustrates the functions particular, play an important role in learning and associated with particular areas of the cerebral memory. Their importance is demonstrated in cortex. certain patients with epilepsy, who, in an effort to stop their seizures, have had portions of the limbic Another way to describe the brain is in terms of the system removed. One unintended consequence of functions associated with a particular area. The the surgery is that individuals sometimes have picture shows the specialized regions within the difficulty learning and remembering new lobes related to specific functions and areas of the information. In one case, a patient who had body. Three major areas are known: the motor undergone surgery was unable to remember where areas, the sensory areas, and the association he lived, although he had resided at the same areas. When people suffer brain injury, uninjured address for 8 years. Further, even though the patient portions of the brain can sometimes take over the was able to carry on animated conversations, he functions that were previously handled by the was unable, a few minutes later, to recall what had damaged area. In short, the brain is extraordinarily been discussed (Milner, 1966; Rich & Shapiro, adaptable (Sacks, 2003; Boller, 2004; Brown, 2007; Grimm, 2011). Martinez, & Parsons, 2006). The limbic system, then, is involved in several THE MOTOR AREA OF THE CORTEX - important functions, including self-preservation, If you look at the frontal lobe in the picture, you learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. will see a shaded portion labeled motor area. This These functions are hardly unique to humans; in part of the cortex is largely responsible for the fact, the limbic system is sometimes referred to as body’s voluntary movement. The motor area is so well mapped that researchers have identified the Notes ni reysen ganda: amount and relative location of cortical tissue used Frontal lobe- counscious mental to produce movement in specific parts of the human body. For example, the control of movements that processing, decision making, problem are relatively large scale and require little solving and speaking. (nandito si broca) precision, such as the movement of a knee or a hip, nagsasalita ako because my broca’s area is is centered in a very small space in the motor area. fuctioning. In contrast, movements that must be precise and delicate, such as facial expressions and finger Temporal lobe - auditory, language movements, are controlled by a considerably larger comprehension and speech development. portion of the motor area (Schwenkreis et al., (nagkakaintindihan tayo because of 2007). temporal lobe) (nandito si wernicke) THE SENSORY AREA OF THE CORTEX - nagkakaintindihan tayo sa class because The sensory area of the cortex includes three our wernicke's area is functioning regions: one that corresponds primarily to body Parietal lobe- motor complex, balance. sensations (including touch and pressure), one Occipital lobe- vision, sight. relating to sight, and a third relating to sound. For instance, the somatosensory area in the parietal Deaf and hard of hearing - problematic ang lobe encompasses specific locations associated wernicke’s area, may konting naririnig pero walang with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in a naiintindihan. particular area of the body. As with the motor THE ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE area, the amount of brain tissue related to a CORTEX - particular location on the body determines the degree of sensitivity of that location. Specifically, In a freak accident in 1848, an explosion drove a 3- the greater the area devoted to a specific area of the foot-long iron bar completely through the skull of body within the cortex, the more sensitive is that railroad worker Phineas Gage, where it remained area of the body. after the accident. Amazingly, Gage survived and, despite the rod lodged through his head, a few The senses of sound and sight are also represented minutes later seemed to be fine. But he wasn’t. in specific areas of the cerebral cortex. An Before the accident, Gage was hardworking and auditory area located in the temporal lobe is cautious. Afterward, he became irresponsible, responsible for the sense of hearing. If the auditory drank heavily, and drifted from one wild scheme to area is stimulated electrically, a person will hear another. In the words of one of his physicians, “he sounds such as clicks or hums. It also appears that was ‘no longer Gage’” (Harlow, 1869, p. 14). particular locations within the auditory area respond to specific pitches (Hyde, Peretz, & What had happened to the old Gage? Although Zatorre, 2008; Bizley et al., 2009; Tsuchida, Ueno, there is no way of knowing for sure, we can & Shimada, 2015). speculate that the accident injured the region of Gage’s cerebral cortex known as the association The visual area in the cortex, located in the areas. The association areas are the site of higher occipital lobe, responds in the same way to mental processes such as thinking, language, electrical stimulation. Stimulation by electrodes memory, and speech (Rowe et al., 2000). produces the experience of flashes of light or colors, suggesting that the raw sensory input of The association areas make up a large portion of the images from the eyes is received in this area of the cerebral cortex and consist of the sections that are brain and transformed into meaningful stimuli. The not directly involved in either sensory processing visual area provides another example of how areas or directing movement. The association areas of the brain are intimately related to specific areas control executive functions, which abilities are of the body: Specific structures in the eye are related to planning, goal setting, judgment, and related to a particular part of the cortex—with, as impulse control. you might guess, more area of the brain given to the most sensitive portions of the retina (Wurtz & Much of our understan