Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology What is Psychology? The term psychology comes from the 8- Greek roots psyche meaning soul or mind and logos meaning word or study  What is Psychology? Psychology is the science of human behavior and mental processes. Behavior is anything we do 8€ overt...

Introduction to Psychology What is Psychology? The term psychology comes from the 8- Greek roots psyche meaning soul or mind and logos meaning word or study  What is Psychology? Psychology is the science of human behavior and mental processes. Behavior is anything we do 8€ overt actions and reactions Mental - processes are our internal experiences thoughts, feelings, memories… ↳ covert  Why study Psychology? Psychology helps us scientifically evaluate common beliefs and misconceptions about behavior and mental processes. Scientific psychology has four basic goals: - - to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior and mental processes Psychological information is based - on empirical evidence & This is information based on direct observation and measurements with scientific method It’s important to remember that… Psychologist’s ARE _ scientists! Psychologists have different ways of looking at the same problem, which is why there are so many sub-fields of psychology  Psychology’s roots began in = philosophy, but the focus changed to a scientific focus. This scientific focus remains today. Where did Psychology come from? The first psychological laboratory was not created until 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt was responsible for creating the first school of psychological thought called Structuralism This school focused only on immediate conscious experience and thought.  Problems with Structuralism This group of Psychologists used a technique called Introspection which was a process of self-examination where the person described and analyzed thoughts as they occurred. Structuralism…the first step The focus of study was way too narrow They studied people only like themselves- very wealthy white males. No valid research was produced This school of thought was a great start, but no longer exists.  The Next Evolution Functionalism is the second perspective to emerge, founded by William James. They studied how and why the mind functions. This perspective broadened the scope of psychology and applied psychology to practical settings. This perspective still focused on consciousness but began to examine overt behavior, not just mental processes.  The Earliest Schools of Psychology Historically School of Description Important Psychology People Focused on understanding the Wilhelm Structuralism conscious experience Wundt through introspection Emphasized how mental activities William Functionalism helped an organism James adapt to its environment Psychology continued to expand based on the early work of these perspectives  Psychological Perspectives Psychologists have different ways of looking at behavior Psychoanalytic perspective Behaviorist perspective Humanistic perspective Cognitive perspective Biopsychology perspective Social psychological perspective Evolutionary perspective See p. 12  Who hasn’t heard of Freud? This is one of the most well-known psychological perspectives in history developed by Sigmund Freud. Freud believed that emotional problems are due to anxiety from unresolved conflicts that reside in unconscious  Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory Late 1800s, early 1900s Focus on the unconscious and on childhood experiences Theory of personality Interaction between id, ego, superego Theory of development Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital stages Today, controversial but still influential  Psychoanalytic Theory Freud was one of the first to treat emotional disorders. Freud’s theories were the first to suggest that our childhood experiences impact our adult behaviors The first to provide therapy for patients. Developed dream interpretation and free association  Gestalt Theory Early 1900s; Max Wertheimer Examined perception Explores the idea that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual The “invisible” triangle responds to in perception you see here is an example of gestalt perception. Behaviorism…the opposite of Psychoanalysis Behaviorism was founded by John Watson in direct opposition to Psychoanalytic Theory. Behaviorism focused on behavior that can be measured and observable. This returned the scientific approach to psychology. Wecan describe, predict, and control that behavior. Behaviorism…the opposite of Psychoanalysis Behaviorist’s believe people are controlled by their environment. Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior We are the result of what we have learned from our environment. Behaviorism Early to mid-1900s Focuses on observing and controlling behavior Conditioning Reinforcement and punishment Modified versions of the operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner box, are still widely used in research settings today  Humanism 1950s Focuses on the potential for good that is innate to all humans Emphasizes the whole person and views people as able to take the lead in their own therapy Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology believes that behaviors are performed because of ideas and thoughts. The cognitive perspective focuses on such processes as perception, memory, and thinking Cognitive psychology currently exerts a strong influence in psychology.  Early Schools of Psychology Historically School of Psychology Description Earliest Period Important People Focuses on the role of the unconscious and Psychodynamic Very late 19th to Early Sigmund Freud, Erik childhood experiences Psychology 20th Century Erikson in affecting conscious behavior. Focuses on observing and controlling behavior through what is Ivan Pavlov, John B. Behaviorism Early 20th Century observable. Puts an Watson, B. F. Skinner emphasis on learning and conditioning. Focuses not just on Ulric Neisser, Noam behavior, but on on Cognitive Psychology 1920s Chomsky, Jean Piaget, mental processes and Lev Vygotsky internal mental states. Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans Abraham Maslow, Carl Humanistic Psychology and rejects that 1950s Rogers psychology should focus on problems and disorders. 10 DTS ! The Five Psychological Domains The Biological Domain Biopsychology: Explores how our biology influences behavior. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology. Evolutionary psychology: Explores how human behavior evolved. Sensation and perception: Research is interdisciplinary, but there is a focus on the physiological aspects of sensory systems, as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information. The Cognitive Domain Focuses on thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions Studies language, cognition, memory, intelligence, and more The Developmental Domain Includes behavioral psychology and learning/conditioning Classical and operant conditioning Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan Stages and milestones of development The Social and Personality Psychology Domain Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others Personality psychology is the study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique A personality trait is a consistent pattern of thought and behavior Five Factor Model of Personality  The Mental and Physical Health Domain Abnormal psychology focuses on abnormal thoughts and behaviors Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors Other Sub-fields in Psychology Industrial-Organizational psychology applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings. Forensic psychology applies the science and practice of psychology to the justice system. Sport and exercise psychology focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities Other Sub-fields in Psychology Experimental: Encompasses the traditional core of topics such as sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation and emotion. Counseling: Overlaps with clinical psychology in that specialists in both areas engage in similar activities – interviewing, testing, and providing therapy. Counseling psychologists usually work with a somewhat different clientele, providing assistance to people struggling with everyday problems of moderate severity – they specialize in family, marital, or career counseling. Other Sub-fields in Psychology Educational: Work to improve curriculum design, achievement testing, teacher training, and other aspects of the educational process. School psychologists usually work in elementary or secondary schools, where they test and counsel children having difficulties in school and aid parents and teachers in solving school- related problems.  Applied Psychologists (service providers) The remaining 3/4ths work in hospitals, clinics, police departments, research institutes, government agencies, business and industry, schools, nursing homes, counseling centers, and private practice. Introduction to Psychology Psychological Research  The Scientific Method The Scientific Method ensures that results are empirical, or grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. The Process of Scientific Research  Hypothesis or Theory? Hypothesis: (plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables Theory: well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena Theories and Hypotheses in the Scientific Method  Key Components of the Scientific Method Fairness: implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis Falsifiable: It should be possible to disprove a theory or hypothesis by experimental results Predictability: implies that a theory should enable us to make predictions about future events Verifiability: an experiment must be replicable by another researcher  Ethics in Research with Human Participants Any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants must have access to an institutional review board (IRB), a committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants to ensure that the participants are not harmed.  Informed Consent An IRB will require informed consent from all participants. A research participant must understand what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then give written consent to participate. In some cases researchers may use deception or purposely mislead experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment. In these cases participants are debriefed, or told the truth after the experiment. Categories of Psychological Research Descriptive research: research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured Correlational research: tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables Experimental research: tests a hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships  Common Types of Descriptive Research Clinical or case study: observational research study focusing on one or a few people Naturalistic observation: observation of behavior in its natural setting Survey: list of questions to be answered by research participants allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people. Surveys use a sample, or representative group, to learn more about a population  Other types of Descriptive Research Archival research: method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships Cross-sectional research: compares multiple segments of a population at a single time Longitudinal research: studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time  Issues with Descriptive Research It may not be possible to generalize, or infer that the results for a sample apply to the larger population Observer bias is when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations One way to assess observers is inter-rater reliability, a measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event It cannot test relationships between variables or cause and effect  Correlational Research Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more variables. We can measure correlation by calculating the correlation coefficient, a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.  Limits of Correlational Research Correlation does not prove cause and effect! Some other factor, a confounding variable, could be causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest  Experimental Design: Participants Basic design involves two groups: experimental group and the control group Random samples ensure that the groups represent the larger population researchers are studying Random assignment to control or experimental groups prevents differences between the two groups other than the independent variable being tested  Operational Definition A clear operational definition or description of how we will measure our variables is important so people can understand the results and the experiment can be replicated Independent and Dependent Variables  Preventing Bias in Experiments Double blind studies where researchers and participants do not know which group received the treatment prevent experimenter bias and control for the placebo effect in participants The placebo effect is the influence of people’s expectations or beliefs on their experience in a given situation  Reliability and Validity Reliability: consistency and reproducibility of a given result Validity: accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure Generalizability and Cause and Effect Random sampling is necessary to generalize results from our sample to a larger population, and random assignment is key to drawing cause-and-effect conclusions. With both kinds of randomness, probability models help us assess how much random variation we can expect in our results, in order to determine whether our results could happen by chance alone and to estimate a margin of error. Introduction to Psychology Growth and Development  Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology focuses on how people change. Cognitive development Physical development Psychosocial development Normative approach Issues in Developmental Psychology: Nature vs. Nurture Are we who we are because of our genes, or are we who we are because of our environment and culture? Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment  Freudian Psychosexual Development Children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research but his ideas about the importance of childhood experiences have had a lasting influence  Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory How we interact with others affects our sense of self, or ego identity Personality development takes place through the lifespan At each stage of life there is a conflict that we need to resolve  Psychosocial Stages of Development Age Stage Developmental Task Description (years) Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such 1 0–1 Trust vs. mistrust as nourishment and affection, will be met Autonomy vs. Develop a sense of independence in 2 1–3 shame/doubt many tasks Take initiative on some activities—may 3 3–6 Initiative vs. guilt develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped Develop self-confidence in abilities 4 7–11 Industry vs. inferiority when competent or sense of inferiority when not Experiment with and develop identity 5 12–18 Identity vs. confusion and roles Establish intimacy and relationships with 6 19–29 Intimacy vs. isolation others Generativity vs. Contribute to society and be part of a 7 30–64 stagnation family Assess and make sense of life and 8 65– Integrity vs. despair meaning of contributions  Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Cognitive abilities develop through specific stages. Children develop schemata, mental models, to interpret information Assimilation is when they take in information that fits with what they already know Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information  Stages of Cognitive Development Age Developmental Stage Description (years) issues World experienced Object 0–2 Sensorimotor through senses and permanence actions Stranger anxiety Use words and images Pretend play to represent things, Egocentrism 2–6 Preoperational but lack logical Language reasoning development Understand concrete events and analogies Conservation Concrete 7–11 logically; perform Mathematical operational arithmetical transformations operations Formal operations Formal Abstract logic 12– Utilize abstract operational Moral reasoning reasoning Stages of Moral Reasoning  Stages of Prenatal Development There are three stages of prenatal development: 1. Germinal Conception - sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote (right) Mitosis - process of cell division 2. Embryonic Implants itself in the lining of the uterus Placenta forms 3. Fetal  Fetal Developmen t  Prenatal Development: Prenatal Care Medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus Reduces the risk of complications to the mother and fetus Anything the mother is exposed to affects the fetus Teratogen: biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus Critical (sensitive) period: time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop  Infant Development: Newborn Reflexes All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes, inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation including: Rooting reflex: Babies respond to anything that touches the cheek by turning their heads in that direction and sucking Sucking reflex: Automatic, unlearned, sucking motions Grasping reflex: Babies automatically grasp anything that touches their palms Moro reflex: Response to the sensation of falling. Babies spread their arms, pull them back in, and cry  Infant Development: Attachment Attachment is a long-standing connection or bond with others It is the main psychosocial developmental milestone of infancy Secure attachment Resistant attachment Avoidant attachment Disorganized attachment  Childhood Development: Milestones Age in Personal/ Physical Language Cognitive years Social Plays Kicks a ball; Points to Sorts shapes alongside walks up named object; and colors; 2 other and down 2–4 word follows 2-step children; stairs sentences instructions copies adults Takes turns; Climbs and Names familiar Plays make expresses 3 runs; pedals things; uses believe; works emotions; tricycle pronouns toys with parts dresses self Prefers social Names colors Catches Knows songs play; knows and numbers; 4 balls; uses and rhymes by likes and begins writing scissors memory interests letters Distinguishes Counts to 10; Hops and real from Speaks clearly; prints letters swings; uses 5 pretend; likes uses full and copies fork and to please sentences basic shapes, spoon friends Theory of Mind  Childhood Development: Cognitive Children Ages 6-11 understand: Concepts such as the past, present, and future Cause-and-effect relationships Rules Children have limited attention spans Childhood Development: Self-Concept and Parenting Styles The primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. Parenting style affects a child’s self-concept. The four parenting styles are: 1.Authoritarian 2.Authoritative 3.Permissive 4.Uninvolved  Adolescent Physical Development Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing  Adolescent Cognitive Development During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought Ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions, and form new ideas Question authority or challenge established societal norms Cognitive empathy begins to increase  Adolescent Social Development As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important.  Emergent Adulthood Newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family  Adulthood: Physical Development Young Adulthood (20s-40s) Peak muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning Child-bearing years Middle Adulthood (40s-60s) Gradual physical decline Late adulthood (60s +) Reaction time slows Senses and muscle strength diminish. Memory Loss  Adulthood: Cognitive Development Fluid intelligence refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time; tends decline over the course of adulthood Crystallized intelligence encompasses abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge. Older adults often use crystallized intelligence to compensate for declines in fluid intelligence Adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities experience less cognitive decline Adulthood: Psychosocial Development During early and middle adulthood, meaning is found through work and family life Stable marriages and relationships with adult children improve well-being Social connectedness and social support are important for positive aging  Death and the Five Stages of Grief In some cultures, death is accepted as a natural part of life. Hospice is a service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital setting. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross proposed five stages of grief: 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance