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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Wilhelm Wundt - first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Psychology Germany in 1879 and was called the Is derived from the Gree...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Wilhelm Wundt - first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Psychology Germany in 1879 and was called the Is derived from the Greek words psyche - founder of modern experimental and logos, meaning soul and study. psychology. To the Greeks, psychology is simply a study of the soul. Franz Gall Psychology is defined as the scientific - localize special faculties in the parts of study of the behaviour of living the brain. organisms, with special attention to Ernst Weber (1795-1878) human behaviour. - generalized “Weber’s Law” which states Behavior that a difference that is just perceptible Means activities that can be observed bears a constant ratio to the size of objectively, such as the reactions of the the standard stimulus. muscles and the glands, as well as the organized patterns of responses as a ⚫ Gustav T. Fechner (1801-1887) whole. - discovered that by changing a physical It also includes internal processes such stimulus slowly and noting the steps as thinking, feeling and other reactions of judgment expressed (expressed as which cannot be directly observed but can the number of justi-noticeable-differences be inferred from external behaviour. or j.n.d.’s) a relationship can be established between a physical series 6 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS and psychological series. 1.Human behaviour follows an orderly pattern. 2.Human behaviour can be known. Sir Francis Galton (1884) 3.Knowledge of human behaviour is tentative - established his anthropometric but superior to ignorance. laboratory in London where he gave 4.Natural phenomena have natural causes. tests to people who came to his 5.Nothing is self-evident. laboratory. 6.Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experiences. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) - propounded the theory of evolution and WHAT PSYCHOLOGY IS NOT? established the continuity between 1.Psychology is not mysterious. animal and human, it made comparative 2.Psychology is not common sense. psychology important. 3.Psychology is not parascience. Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOLOGY - started his work on hypnotism in treating Aristotle (4th Century B.C.) the mentally ill. - was one of the earliest writers to devote attention to psychology. He believed that Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) at birth, the - founded the psychoanalysis. - mind is a tabula rasa, a blank sheet, and that the experiences one encounters Better known psychologists in the United during one’s lifetime are impressed on States, the mind. - William James (1842-1910) considered St. Augustine as the “Dean of American Psychologists”, - is considered the next great precursor of G. Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, the modern psychologist because of and Edward Titchener set up the first his skill in introspection and his great formal laboratory at the John Hopkins curiosity about psychological phenomena, University in 1883. which included observations on young Hermann Ebbinghaus(1885) infants and on crowds at chariot races. - reported his studies in learning and memory which were directly inspired by Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Fechner’s measurement of sensation. - left his mark on the history of psychology through his concept of reflex action, which has had a significant place in both physiology and psychology.  5. Cognitive (1950-present) SCHOOL OF THOUGHT OF PSYCHOLOGY Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert Simon focused on thought and 1. Structuralism (1875-1930) mental processes. Germany in the 19th Century. Human behaviour cannot be fully Its main leaders were Wilhelm Wundt understood without analyzing how and later, Edward Bradford Titchener. people acquire, store and process “Mind is made up of building blocks in information. the form of various types of sensation and perception, and that these building blocks 6. Biological (1950-present) could be discovered through introspection James Olds and Roger Sperry theorized or looking into one’s own mind.” that much of human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of 2. Functionalism (1890-1930) bodily structure and biochemical Was developed in the United States. processes. Its main leaders were William James, Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, 7. Purposivism James R. Angell, John Dewey and William McDougall Harvey Carr. He believed that objects, movement and the focus of psychology to learning, behaviour have a definite purpose and motivation, and thinking and veered that the ductless glands in people away from the structuralists’ emphasis produce hormones which give them on individual perception and sensations. purpose. 3. Psychoanalysis (1900-present) BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY Sigmund Freud, to find the cause and cure of personality General Psychology disorders. Explains the underlying principles of existence of unconscious mental human behaviour. processes which influenced an Comparative Psychology individual’s behaviour in various indirect Is that branch of psychology which studies ways. the behaviour and mental process of “psychoanalysis”, emphasizes free the different species. association. This is letting the patient Development or Genetic Psychology freely associate on his thoughts and Is the study of human behaviour in all experiences, and with the help of the aspects of growth and development. psychiatrist, analyzes the causes of his Child Psychology difficulty. Is the study of human behaviour from 4. Behaviorism (1913-present) prenatal until early adolescence stages. founded by John B. Watson Adolescence Psychology He argued that the psychologist should Is the study of behaviour from puberty to use only objective methods later life. Behavior can be learn Senescence Psychology Is the study of human behaviour in old 5. Gestalt (1912-1940) age. Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, and Max Abnormal Psychology Wertheimer Is the study of the etiology or cause of psychology should study the whole personality defects or behaviour which pattern of behaviour or experience or the deviates from the average reaction. perception of organized configuration. Experimental Psychology Deals with the investigation of different 6. Humanistic (1950-present) types of behaviour through observation Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow and experiment in psychological emphasized the unique qualities of laboratories. humans. Differential Psychology Individuals has a potential for personal Is the study of differences and growth similarities between individuals, social groups and races.  Is the applied science of studying Dynamic Psychology motivation, perception, and learning to Is the scientific interpretation of mental understand decision making and phenomena emphasizing internal drives behaviour of consumers. and motives as the cause of behaviour. Physiological Psychology Behaviour Analyst Is the study of the functions of the Focuses on the application of basic facts different organs of the body, especially and principles that arise out of the nervous system, and their bearing on experimental studies of humans such behaviour and mental processes. as researches on addiction, energy Educational Psychology wasting, self-destruction, etc. and non- Is concerned with the psychological clinical types of research. aspects of teaching and of formal learning processes in schools. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Applied Psychology Is used in medicine, education, law, Introspection business, industry, and in many other Is a method of mental self-analysis fields. wherein the psychologist studies himself, Legal Psychology records his feeling and experiences, Is the application of the principles of analyzes these and later interprets them. human behaviour in law or any legal Observation proceedings. Is the most widely used method in the Clinical Psychology study of behaviour. There are several Pertains to the diagnosis and evaluation kinds of observation: uncontrolled or of events in relation to the condition of a informal observation. Naturalistic person who has a problem. observation and controlled or formal Business Psychology observation. Deals particularly with the behaviour of consumers. Life-History Method Industrial and Engineering Psychology Is the extensive study of individuals by Is a branch of applied psychology which tracing the development of a particular investigates problems and situations in form of behaviour. Life history methods business firms and industries. are of three bsic forms: the daybook Vocational Guidance method, the clinical method or the Is applied in the scientific selection a biographical method. suitable employment or vocation, particularly aimed at helping students Survey Method choose their occupations or careers. Uses data obtained from respondents Mental Hygiene through written questionnaires or Is the systematic practice of measures for the interviews. prevention of mental illness and the Experimental Method preservation of mental health. Is the study of behaviour inside the Social Psychology laboratory under controlled conditions. It Is the study of people’s behaviour in relation to involves variables which can be measured their families, groups and communities. quantitatively. Variables may be either Health Psychology independent or dependent. Is the study of promotion and maintenance of health, prevention and treatment of illness. Statistical Method Sport Psychology Statistics is the science that deals with the Focuses on social, mental, and emotional collecting and handling of numerical data problems of athletes. and making inferences from such data. Community Psychology Is the study of improving the quality of life of individuals in a community through intervention at a social system level. Nervous System - an extensive network of specialized cells that carry information Consumer Psychology to and from all parts of the body. CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE  Nervous System OTHER TYPES OF BRAIN CELLS - network of specialized cells that carry information to and from all parts of the Glial cells - grey fatty cells that: body. provide support for the neurons to grow on Neuroscience and around, - deals with the structure and function of deliver nutrients to neurons, neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue. produce myelin to coat axons - Relationship to behavior and learning. Myelin - fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse. clean up waste products and dead neurons. NEURONS IN THE BODY Nerves – bundles of axons in the body that travel together through the body. --Neurilemma – Schwann’s membrane. Tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers can repair themselves. GENERATING THE MESSAGE: NEURAL IMPULSE 1. Ions STRUCTURE OF NEURON - charged particles. Neurons - Inside neuron – negatively charged. - the basic cell that makes up the - Outside neuron – positively charged. nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that 2. Resting potential - the state of the system. neuron when not firing a neural impulse. 3. Action potential - the release of the Parts of a Neuron neural impulse consisting of a reversal of 1. Dendrites - branch-like structures that the electrical charge within the axon. receive messages from other neurons. - Allows positive sodium ions to enter 2. Soma - the cell body of the neuron, the cell. responsible for maintaining the life of the 4. All-or-none - referring to the fact that a cell. neuron either fires completely or does not 3. Axon - long tube-like structure that fire at all. carries the neural message to other cells. 5. Return to resting potential. NEURON COMMUNICATION 1. Sending the Message to Other Cells 2. Axon terminals - branches at the end of the axon. -Synaptic knob – rounded areas on the end of axon terminals. 3. Synaptic vesicles - sack-like structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals. - Neurotransmitters - chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, has an effect on the next cell. 4. Synapse/synaptic gap - microscopic fluid- filled space between the rounded areas CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM on the end of the axon terminals of one Central nervous system (CNS) - part of cell and the dendrites or surface of the next the nervous system consisting of the cell. brain and spinal cord. 5. Receptor sites - holes in the surface of - Spinal cord - a long bundle of neurons the dendrites or certain cells of the that carries messages to and from the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit body to the brain that is responsible for only certain neurotransmitters. very fast, lifesaving reflexes. 6. Neurons must be turned ON and OFF. THE REFLEX ARC: THREE TYPES OF Excitatory neurotransmitter NEURONS: -neurotransmitter that causes the receiving 1. Sensory neuron - a neuron that carries cell to fire. information from the senses to the Inhibitory neurotransmitter central nervous system. neurotransmitter that causes the receiving - Also called “afferent neuron” cell to stop firing. 2. Motor neuron - a neuron that carries 7. Chemical substances can affect neuronal messages from the central nervous communication. system to the muscles of the body. Agonists - mimic or enhance the - Also called “efferent neuron” effects of a neurotransmitter on the 3. Interneuron - a neuron found in the receptor sites of the next cell, center of the spinal cord that receives increasing or decreasing the activity information from the sensory neurons of that cell. and sends commands to the muscles Antagonists - block or reduce a through the motor neurons. cell’s response to the action of other - Interneurons also make up the chemicals or neurotransmitters. 4. Neuroplasticity – the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cell involved in trauma. CLEANING UP THE SYNAPSE Reuptake - process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles. Enzyme - a complex protein that is manufactured by cells. One type specifically breaks up acetylcholine because muscle activity needs to happen rapidly, so reuptake would be too slow. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(PNS) Thyroid gland - endocrine gland found in the - all nerves and neurons that are not contained neck that regulates metabolism. in the brain and spinal cord but that run Pancreas - endocrine gland that controls the through the body itself; divided into the: levels of sugar in the blood. -Somatic nervous system Gonads - the sex glands that secrete -Autonomic nervous system hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction. 1. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM -Ovaries - the female gonads. - Soma = body. -Testes - the male gonads. - division of the PNS consisting of nerves Adrenal glands - endocrine glands located that carry information from the senses on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 to the CNS and from the CNS to the different hormones to deal with stress, voluntary muscles of the body. regulate salt intake, and provide a Sensory pathway - nerves coming secondary source of sex hormones from the sensory organs to the CNS affecting the sexual changes that occur during consisting of sensory neurons. adolescence. Motor pathway - nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of motor neurons. 2. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands sensory pathway nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons. Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system) - part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal. LOOKING INSIDE THE LIVING BRAIN Parasympathetic division - part of Clinical studies the ANS that restores the body to 1. Deep lesioning - insertion of a thin, normal functioning after arousal insulated wire into the brain through which and is responsible for the day-to-day an electrical current is sent that destroys the functioning of the organs and glands. brain cells at the tip of the wire. 2. Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) - milder electrical current that causes neurons to react as if they had received a message. -Human brain damage. 3. Electroencephalograph (EEG) - machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain. 4. Peeking Inside the Brain MAPPING STRUCTURE 1. Computed tomography (CT) - brain-imaging ENDOCRINE GLANDS method using computer-controlled X-rays of - glands that secrete chemicals called the brain. “hormones” directly into the bloodstream. 2. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - brain- Hormones - chemicals released into the imaging method using radio waves and bloodstream by endocrine glands. magnetic fields of the body to produce Pituitary gland - gland located in the brain detailed images of the brain. that secretes human growth hormone and 3. Mapping Function influences all other hormone-secreting Positron emission tomography (PET) - glands (also known as the master gland). brain-imaging method in which a radioactive Pineal gland - endocrine gland located near sugar is injected into the subject and a the base of the cerebrum that secretes computer compiles a color-coded image of the melatonin. activity of the brain with lighter colors indicating more activity.  Functional MRI (fMRI) – computer makes a - Amygdala - brain structure located near sort of “movie” of changes in the activity of the the hippocampus, responsible for fear brain using images from different time periods. responses and memory of fear. Electroencephalogram (EEG) – records electric activity of the brain below specific areas of the skull Single photon emission computed tomography(SPECT) – similar to PET but uses different radioactive tracers BRAIN STEM Medulla - the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life- sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate. Pons - the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in CORTEX sleep, dreaming, left–right body Cortex - outermost covering of the brain coordination, and arousal. consisting of densely packed neurons, Reticular formation (RF) - an area of responsible for higher thought processes neurons running through the middle of the and interpretation of sensory input. medulla and the pons and slightly beyond Corticalization – wrinkling of the cortex. that is responsible for selective Allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist attention. in the small space inside the skull. Cerebellum - part of the lower brain Human cortex compared to various located behind the pons that controls and animal species coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. CEREBRA; HEMISPHERES Cerebral hemispheres - the two sections of STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX the cortex on the left and right sides of the Limbic system - a group of several brain brain. structures located under the cortex and Corpus callosum - thick band of neurons that involved in learning, emotion, memory, and connects the right and left cerebral motivation. hemispheres. - Thalamus - part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN structure relays sensory information from Occipital lobe - section of the brain located the lower part of the brain to the proper at the rear and bottom of each cerebral areas of the cortex and processes some hemisphere containing the visual centers of sensory information before sending it the brain. to its proper area. - Primary visual cortex – processes visual - Olfactory bulbs - two projections just information from the eyes. under the front of the brain that receive - Visual association cortex – identifies and information from the receptors in the makes sense of visual information. nose located just below. Parietal lobes - Hypothalamus - small structure in the - Sections of the brain located at the top brain located below the thalamus and and back of each cerebral hemisphere directly above the pituitary gland, containing the centers for touch, taste, responsible for motivational behavior and temperature sensations. such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex. - Somatosensory cortex - area of neurons Sits above and controls the pituitary gland running down the front of the parietal (master endocrine gland). lobes responsible for processing - Hippocampus - curved structure located information from the skin and internal within each temporal lobe, responsible body receptors for touch, temperature, for the formation of long-term body position, and possibly taste. memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.  Temporal lobes - areas of the cortex located Left side of the brain: seems to control just behind the temples containing the language, writing, logical thought, analysis, neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and mathematical abilities, processes and meaningful speech. information sequentially, can speak. - Primary auditory cortex – processes Right side of the brain: controls emotional auditory information from the ears. expression, spatial perception, recognition of - Auditory association cortex – identifies faces, patterns, melodies, and emotions, and makes sense of auditory information. processes information globally, cannot speak. Frontal lobes - areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech. - Motor cortex - section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system. ASSOCIATION AREAS OF CORTEX Association areas - areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing. Broca’s aphasia - condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area (usually in left frontal lobe), unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly. Wernicke’s aphasia - condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in left temporal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language. Spatial neglect - condition produced by damage to the association areas of the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field. SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH Cerebrum - the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them. Split brain research - Study of patients with severed corpus callosum. - Involves sending messages to only one side of the brain. - Demonstrates right and left brain specialization. - Split-brain subjects stared at a dot and viewed a composite of two faces (A). When asked what they saw, subjects chose the child—the image sent to the verbal left hemisphere (B). But when subjects pointed to the face with the left hand, they chose the woman with glasses—whose image was received by the right hemisphere (C) (Levy et al., 1983). - Language is primarily a left hemisphere activity for most individuals  ⚫ Psychological Aspects to Light CHAPTER 3: Sensation and Perception Color - is determined by the length of the wave. ❖ Sensation – Long wavelengths are found at the red - Activation of receptors in the various end of the visible spectrum (the portion of the sense organs whole spectrum of light that is visible to the human eye), whereas shorter wavelengths are Sensory receptor - specialized form of found at the blue end. neurons Saturation - purity of the color people see; Sense organs: eyes, nose, ears, skin, mixing in black or gray would also lessen tastebud the saturation. ⚫ Sensory Threshold Just noticeable difference (jnd or the difference threshold) - the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time Absolute threshold - the smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time it is present. Structure of the eye 1. Cornea - clear membrane that covers the surface of the eye; - protects the eye from the light coming to ⚫ Subliminal Sensation the eye Subliminal stimuli - stimuli that are Radial kerototomy below the level of conscious awareness. - vision-improving technique - strong to activate sensory receptors - making small incisions in the cornea to but not to wake people consciousness change the focus in the eye. - Limin- threshold 2. Aqueous humor - Sublimin- below threshold -next visual layer; clear, watery fluid - Supraliminal – above the threshold -continually replenished and supplies Subliminal Perception - subliminal nourishment to the eye stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, 3. Pupil influencing behavior. - hole through which light from the visual image enters the interior of the eye. ⚫ Habituation and Sensory Adaptation 4. Iris Habituation - tendency of the brain to - round muscle (the colored part of the stop attending to constant, unchanging eye) information. - where pupil located Sensory Adaptation - tendency of - letting more or less light into the eye; sensory receptor cells to become less helps responsive to a stimulus that is - focus the image. unchanging. 5. Lens Microsaccades - constant movement of - clear structure behind the iris the eyes, tiny little vibrations called that - suspended by muscles; people do not notice consciously; - finishes the focusing process begun by prevents sensory adaptation to visual the cornea. stimuli.  Visual accommodation - change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close. Vitreous humor - jelly-like fluid called that also nourishes the eye and gives it shape. 6. Retina - final stop for light in the eye. - 3 parts: Ganglion cells, Bipolar cells, Photoreceptors that respond to various light waves 7. Rods - visual sensory receptors - responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light. How the Eyes Work 8. Cones Dark adaptation- recovery of the eye’s - visual sensory receptors sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after - responsible for color vision and exposure to bright lights. Night blindness sharpness of vision. Light adaptation - recovery of the eye’s 9. Blindspot sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after - area in the retina where the axons of the exposure to darkness. three layers of retinal cells Color Vision - form the optic nerve, insensitive to light Trichromatic theory- proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green. Afterimages- when visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed. Opponent-process theory - proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow. - Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus Color Blindness 1. Monochrome colorblindness - no cones or have cones that are not working at all. 2. Red-green colorblindness - red or the green cones are not working. Protanopia – lack of functioning red cones. Deuteranopia – lack of functioning green cones. Tritanopia - lack of functioning blue cones. Can get through Sex-linked inheritance.  SOUND Wavelength - frequency or pitch (high, medium, or low). Amplitude – volume (how soft or loud a sound is). Purity – timbre (a richness in the tone of the sound). hertz (Hz) - cycles or waves per second, a measurement of frequency. Structure of the Ear 1. Auditory canal - short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the Theories of Pitch eardrum (tympanic membrane). 1. Place theory – different pitches are 2. Eardrum experienced by the stimulation of hair - thin section of skin that tightly covers the cells in different locations on the organ of opening into the middle part of the ear Corti. - When sound waves hit the eardrum, it 2. Frequency theory - pitch is related to the vibrates and causes three tiny bones in speed of vibrations in the basilar the middle ear to vibrate. membrane volley principle 3. Hammer 3. Volley principle - pitch that states that 4. Anvil frequencies above 100 Hz cause the hair 5. Stirrup cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley 6. Cochlea pattern, or take turns in firing. - snail-shaped structure of the inner ear that is filled with fluid. Types of Hearing Impairments 7. Organ of Corti Conduction hearing impairment - rests in the basilar membrane; - damaged eardrum (which would prevent - contains receptor cells for sense of sound waves from being carried into the hearing. middle ear properly) 8. Auditory nerve - damage to the bones of the middle ear - bundle of axons from the hair cells in the (sounds cannot be conducted from the inner ear; eardrum to the cochlea). - receives neural message from the organ Nerve hearing impairment of Corti. - damage in the inner ear - damage in the auditory pathways and Pitch - psychological experience of sound cortical areas of the brain. that corresponds to the frequency of the Surgery to Help Restore Hearing sound waves; higher frequencies are Cochlear Implant - microphone implanted perceived as higher pitches. just behind the ear picks up sound from the Five Basic Tastes: surrounding environment. – “Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Brothy"  Taste 1. Taste buds- responsible for sense of taste 2. Gustation - The sensation of a taste Five Basic Tastes: – “Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Brothy" Somesthetic Senses - the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses. - "Soma" – body "Esthetic" – feeling 1. Skin senses Smell - the sensations of touch, pressure, Olfaction (olfactory sense) temperature, and pain. – Sense of smell. – Sensory receptors in the skin Olfactory bulbs – Gate-control theory - pain signals must – Areas of the brain located just above the pass through a "gate" located in the spinal sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes cord. that receive information from the olfactory 2. Kinesthetic sense receptor cells. - sense of the location of body parts in At least 1,000 olfactory receptors. relation to the ground and each other. – Proprioceptive receptors (proprioceptors) 3. Vestibular senses - the sensations of movement, balance, and body position sensory conflict theory - information from the eyes conflicts with the information from the vestibular senses, resulting in dizziness, nausea, and other physical discomforts.  ❖ Perception and Constancies Development of Perception Perception – The method by which the Depth perception - to perceive the world sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some in three dimensions. meaningful fashion. Studies of depth perception - Visual cliff Size constancy – The tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual experiment size, regardless of its distance. Shape constancy- to interpret the shape of Monocular Cues (pictorial depth cues) an object as being constant, even when its - cues for perceiving depth based on one shape changes on the retina eye only. Brightness constancy – The tendency to Linear perspective – the tendency for perceive the apparent brightness of an object parallel lines to appear to converge on as the same even when the light conditions each other. change. Relative size - that occurs when objects that a person expects to be of a certain Gestalt Principle size appear to be small 1. Figure–ground – to perceive objects, Interposition (overlap) - object that or figures, as existing on a background. appears to be blocking part of another 2. Reversible figures – Visual illusions in object is in front of the second object and which the figure and ground can be closer to the viewer. reversed. Aerial perspective - the haziness that 3. Similarity – to perceive things that look surrounds objects that are farther away similar to each other as being part of from the viewer, causing the distance to be the same group. perceived as greater. 4. Proximity – to perceive objects that Texture gradient - the tendency for are close to each other as part of the textured surfaces to appear to become same grouping. smaller and finer as distance from the 5. Closure – to complete figures that are viewer increases. incomplete. Motion parallax - the perception of motion 6. Continuity –to perceive things as of objects in which close objects appear to simply as possible with a continuous move more quickly than objects that are pattern rather than with a complex, farther away. broken-up pattern. Accommodation - as a monocular clue, 7. Contiguity – to perceive two things the brain’s use of information about the that happen close together in time as changing thickness of the lens of the eye in being related. response to looking at objects that are close or far away. Pictorial depth cues Linear Perspective Binocular Cues - cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes. Convergence - rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object, resulting in greater convergence for closer objects and lesser convergence if objects are distant. Binocular disparity - the difference in images between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that are close and smaller for distant objects.  Perceptual Illusions 1. Superordinate Concept The Herman grid – is possibly due to the - General form of a type or concept (ex: response of the primary visual cortex. animal or fruit) Müller-Lyer illusion - illusion of line 2. Basic type level length that is distorted by inward-turning - Concepts are organized ( ex: dog or pear) or outward-turning corners on the ends of 3. Suberdinate concepts the lines, causing lines of equal length to - Specific of concept ( ex:one’s pet or pear appear to be different. in one hand) Moon illusion – the moon on the horizon 4. Formal Concepts appears to be larger than the moon in the - Defined by specific rule or features sky. 5. Natural concept – Apparent distance hypothesis - Concept that people form and their Illusions of Motion: experiences in real world – autokinetic effect - a small, stationary 6. Prototype light in a darkened room will appear to - Closely matches the defining move or drift because there are no characteristics of a concept surrounding cues to indicate that the light - A platypus is a "fuzzy" natural concept is not moving. – stroboscopic motion - seen in motion pictures, in which a rapid series of still pictures will appear to be in motion. – phi phenomenon – lights turned on in a sequence appear to move. – Rotating snakes – is due in part to eye movements. – The Enigma - are due in part to microsaccades - Ame’s room illusion Factors that Influence Perception 1. Perceptual set (perceptual expectancy) - to perceive things a certain way because Problem-Solving previous experiences or expectations - process of cognition that occurs when a influence those perceptions. goal must be reached by thinking and 2. Top-down processing - the use of behaving in certain ways. preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole. 1. Trial and error (mechanical solution) – 3. Bottom-up processing - the analysis of problem- solving method in which one the smaller features to build up to a possible solution after another is tried until a complete perception. successful one is found. 2. Algorithms - step-by-step procedures for CHAPTER 4: COGNITION solving certain types of problems. 3. Heuristic - an educated guess based on Thinking and Mental Images prior experiences. Also known as a "rule of Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that thumb." goes on in the brain when a person is Representative heuristic - the organizing and attempting to understand members of a particular category is information and communicating also a member of that category. information to others. Availability heuristic - estimating the Mental images - mental representations frequency or likelihood of an event that stand for objects or events and have based on how easy it is to recall a picture-like quality. relevant information from Means–end analysis - starting - Concepts situation and the goal is determined - ideas that represent a class or category and then steps are taken to reduce of objects, events, or activities that difference. 4. Insights- sudden perception of a solution to a problem.  Problem-Solving Barriers Functional fixedness - a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions. Mental set - the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. Confirmation bias - the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. Creativity - the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways. 3. Triarchic theory of intelligence 1. Convergent thinking - type of thinking in - Sternberg’s theory that there are three which a problem is seen as having only kinds of intelligences: analytical, creative, one answer, and all lines of thinking will and practical. eventually lead to that single answer, Analytical intelligence - the ability to using previous knowledge and logic. break problems down into component 2. Divergent thinking – type of thinking in parts, or analysis, for problem solving. which a person starts from one point and Creative intelligence - the ability to deal comes up with many different ideas or with new and different concepts and to possibilities based on that point (kind of come up with new ways of solving creativity). problems. Practical intelligence – the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful. IQ Tests Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score. Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as Intelligence - - the ability to learn from one’s well as an overall score of intelligence. experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. Theories of Intelligence 1. Spearman’s Theory g factor – the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence. s factor – the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence. 2. Gardner’s Theory - Multiple intelligences - verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalists and existential intelligence.  Intellectual disability Developmentally delayed - condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for intellectual disability. - IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age. Four levels of delay are: - Mild: 55–70 IQ - Moderate: 40–55 IQ - Severe: 25–40 IQ - Profound: Below 25 IQ. Causes: deprived environments, as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies. Development of IQ Tests 1. Standardization - the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. 2. Validity - the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. 3. Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people. Giftedness 4. Deviation IQ scores - a type of - 2 percent of the population falling on the intelligence measure that assumes that upper end of the normal curve and IQ is normally distributed around a mean typically possessing an IQ of 130 or of 100 with a standard deviation of about above. 15. - Terman conducted a longitudinal study – Norms that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part. His study has been criticized for lack of objectivity because he became too involved in the lives of his participants, even to the point of interfering on their behalf. Emotional intelligence – the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life.  Heredity and Environment and Intelligence 6. Pragmatics - aspects of language - Stronger correlations are found between involving the practical ways of IQ scores as genetic relatedness communicating with others, or the social increases. "niceties" of language. - Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50. - The Bell Curve - book that made widely Language and Cognition criticized claims about the heritability of Linguistic relativity hypothesis intelligence. - the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language. Cognitive universalism - theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language. Animal Language Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language. Ways to Improve Thinking Mental activity that requires creativity and the use of memory abilities, such as working crossword puzzles and reading books, can help to keep the brain fit. Language - a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. Elements and Structure of Language 1. Grammar - the system of rules governing the structure and use a of language. 2. Syntax - the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. 3. Morphemes - the smallest units of meaning within a language. 4. Semantics - the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. 5. Phonemes - the basic units of sound in language.