IT Infrastructure and Networking (1) PDF

Nino B. Kingking IT INFRASTRUCURE & NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES Instructor IT INFRASTRUCTURE applications such as Is a combination of Hardware, accounting and inventory Software, Network, Security, Data control. Centers and Telecommuni...

Nino B. Kingking IT INFRASTRUCURE & NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES Instructor IT INFRASTRUCTURE applications such as Is a combination of Hardware, accounting and inventory Software, Network, Security, Data control. Centers and Telecommunications. 2. Mainframe- the foundational technology The introduction of the IBM 1401 components that enable and and 7090 transistorized machines in support an organization's 1959 marked the beginning of information technology (IT) widespread commercial use of systems and operation mainframe computers. In 1965, the mainframe computer truly came Includes: into its own with the introduction of the IBM 360 series. Mainframe 1. Hardware computers became powerful − Servers, desktops, laptops, enough to support thousands of and other computing devices online remote terminals connected − Storage systems to the centralized mainframe using − Networking equipment proprietary communication (switches, routers, firewalls, protocols and proprietary data etc.) lines − Peripheral devices 3. Personal Computers 2. Software: Proliferation of PCs in the 1980s and − Operating systems early 1990s launched a spate − Middleware of personal desktop productivity − Databases software tools—word processors, − Application software spreadsheets, electronic presentation software, and small 3. Networking: data management programs—that − Local Area Networks (LANs) were very valuable to both home − Wide Area Networks (WANs) and corporate users. These PCs − Wireless networks were stand-alone systems until PC − Internet connectivity operating system software in the − Communication protocols 1990s made it possible to link them into networks. Evolution of IT infrastructure 1. Tabulating Machine 4. Client - Server- − an electromechanical In client/server computing, desktop machine designed to assist in or laptop computers called clients summarizing information are networked to powerful server stored on punched cards. computers that provide the client − Invented by Herman Hollerith, computers with a variety of services the machine was developed and capabilities. Computer to help process data for the processing work is split between 1890 U.S. Census. Later models these two types of machines. The were widely used for business client is the user point of entry, whereas the server typically Technology Drivers of Infrastructure processes and stores shared data, 1. Moore’s Law and Microprocessing serves up Web pages, or manages power network activities. The term “server” − Computing power doubles every 2 years refers to both the software − Nanotechnology application and the physical computer on which the network 2. Law of Mass Digital Storage software runs. The amount of data being stored each year doubles 5. Enterprise Computing In the early 1990s, firms turned to 3. Metcalfe’s Law and Network networking standards and software Economies- Value or power of a network grows tools that could integrate disparate exponentially as a function of the networks and applications number of network members throughout the firm into an enterprise-wide infrastructure. As IT INFRASTRUCTURE ECOSYSTEM the Internet developed into a trusted communications environment after 1995, business firms began seriously using the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) networking standard to tie their disparate networks together. 6. Cloud and Mobile Computing- The growing bandwidth power of the Internet has pushed the client / server model one step further, towards what is called the “Cloud Computing Model.” Cloud computing refers to a model of computing that provides access to a shared pool of computing resources (computers, storage, applications, and services) over a network, often the Internet.  Computer Hardware Platforms industrial control systems, IoT − refers to the underlying computer devices, and single-board architecture, components, and computers (e.g., Raspberry Pi). infrastructure that support the Typically have limited resources operation of a system, device, or but are optimized for their technology. It typically includes intended use cases. elements such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, 6. Cloud/Virtual Platforms: storage, and input/output devices. Computing resources provided as − consists of a hardware device and an a service, where the physical operating system that an application, hardware is hosted in data program or process runs upon. centers and accessed remotely. Users can access cloud-based There are several common hardware platforms through web browsers or platforms used in modern computing, dedicated client applications. including: (types) Computer Hardware Platforms - 1. Desktop/Workstation Platforms: Component Traditional desktop computers 1. Processor (CPU) with a tower case, monitor, 2. Memory (RAM) keyboard, and mouse. 3. Storage Workstations designed for 4. Motherboard professional applications like 5. Power Supply Unit (PSU) engineering, 3D modeling, video 6. Input/Output (I/O) Devices editing, etc. 7. Cooling System 8. Expansion Slots 2. Laptop/Notebook Platforms: Portable computers with an REFERENCES: integrated display, keyboard, and − (4) Evolution of IT Infrastructure | touchpad/trackpad. LinkedIn Offer mobility and battery- − IT Infrastructure Evolution – YouTube- powered operation. Technology Drivers of Infrastructure Evolution (youtube.com)- 3. Server Platforms: − Computer Hardware Platforms In It Specialized computers designed Infrastructure (softwareg.com.au)- for hosting, data processing, and − What is computer hardware? providing services to client (techtarget.com) devices. May feature enterprise-grade components, high-performance Infrastructure Components processors, and redundant power supplies. Operating System Platforms An operating system (OS) is system 4. Mobile Platforms: Smartphones and tablets with software that manages computer touchscreen interfaces and hardware and software resources, compact, portable designs. and provides common services for Often powered by mobile- computer programs. optimized system-on-a-chip (SoC) processors. Functions of an Operating System Manages the execution of 5. Embedded Platforms: processes and multitasking. Specialized hardware designed Handles allocation and for specific applications, such as deallocation of memory space.  Organizes, stores, retrieves, and in 1985, is a widely used proprietary manages data on storage operating system known for its user- devices. friendly interface and broad Controls and manages compatibility with software and input/output devices. hardware. Operating System Platform Evolution: Since its initial release, An operating system (OS) platform Windows has evolved significantly, refers to the combination of introducing major updates like hardware and software that Windows XP, Windows 7, and the enables applications to run on a current Windows 10/11. These computer. It encompasses the versions have added features such underlying computer system, as improved security, enhanced including the microprocessor, main graphics, and better support for storage, data bus, and attached modern hardware, maintaining its I/O devices, as well as the position as a dominant player in the operating system itself. OS market. Types of Operating System Platform Market Impact: Windows' Desktop Platforms dominance in the market has Designed for personal influenced software development, computers, these platforms with most applications being include Windows, macOS, and designed to be compatible with it. Linux distributions. The operating system is widely used Mobile Platforms in business, education, and Optimized for smartphones and gaming, making it a critical part of tablets, these platforms include the global IT infrastructure. Android, iOS, and Windows Mobile. Linux Operating System Server Platforms Definition: Linux, created by Linus Designed for data centers and Torvalds in 1991, is an open-source, cloud computing, these Unix-like operating system valued platforms include Linux for its security, flexibility, and wide distributions, Windows Server, use in servers and development and Unix-based systems. environments. Embedded Systems Designed for personal Customization and Use: One of computers, these platforms Linux’s key strengths is its include Windows, macOS, and customizability. Users can choose Linux distributions. from various distributions (distros) Mainframe Platforms like Ubuntu, Fedora, and CentOS, Designed for large-scale each tailored for different enterprise computing, these purposes, from personal desktops platforms include z/OS (formerly to enterprise servers. OS/390) and z/VM. Adoption and Influence: Linux Windows Operating System powers a significant portion of the Definition: Windows, developed by world’s servers, including those Microsoft and founded by Bill Gates running major websites, cloud amounts of data and user traffic, services, and supercomputers. Its making them suitable for influence extends beyond organizations of all sizes. traditional computing environments, being widely used in Integration embedded systems, smartphones They often integrate with other (through Android), and other systems and applications within the devices. organization, such as CRM, ERP, and HR systems. macOS Definition: macOS, launched by Complexity Apple in 2001 and founded by Enterprise software applications Steve Jobs, is a proprietary typically have a complex operating system designed for Mac architecture and require significant computers, known for its sleek customization to meet the design, strong security, and specific needs of the organization. seamless integration with other Apple products. Functionality They provide a range of features User Experience: macOS is praised and functionalities to support for its intuitive user interface, business processes, such as data consistent design language, and analytics, reporting, and workflow integration with Apple’s ecosystem, automation. including devices like the iPhone, iPad, and Apple Watch. Security Enterprise software applications Security and Privacy: Apple places prioritize security and data a strong emphasis on security and protection, with features like access privacy in macOS, implementing controls, encryption, and audit features such as File Vault for disk trails encryption, Gatekeeper for app security, and regular security Benefits of Enterprise Software updates. Applications 1. Improved Efficiency: Enterprise Software Applications Automate repetitive tasks and Enterprise software refers to streamline business processes. applications used by 2. Enhanced Collaboration: organizations to support business Facilitate communication and data operations, improve efficiency, sharing across departments and and facilitate decision-making. teams. These applications are typically 3. Increased Productivity: integrated across various Provide employees with departments, enabling seamless the tools and insights they need to data sharing and collaboration. make informed decisions. 4. Better Decision-Making: Key Characteristics Offer data-driven insights and Scalability analytics to inform strategic Enterprise software applications are business decisions. designed to handle large 5. Competitive Advantage: 3. Recoverability: Ensuring data can Differentiate the organization be restored in case of system through innovative use of failure or data loss. technology and data 4. Capacity: Managing storage capacity to accommodate Examples of Enterprise Software growing data volumes Applications 1. Enterprise Resource Planning Features (ERP) systems: Manage 1. Storage Virtualization: financials, supply chain, human Abstracting storage resources to resources, and operations improve flexibility and scalability. across the organization. 2. Automation: Streamlining 2. Customer Relationship storage management tasks Management (CRM) systems: through software-defined Track customer interactions, storage. sales, and marketing efforts. 3. Security: Implementing robust 3. Human Capital Management security measures to prevent (HCM) systems: Manage unauthorized access and data employee data, benefits, and breaches. performance. 4. Data Retention Policy: Defining 4. Supply Chain Management data retention periods and (SCM) systems: Optimize disposal processes to ensure inventory, logistics, and compliance and optimize procurement processes. storage resources. 5. Business Intelligence (BI) tools: 5. Monitoring and Analytics: Analyze and visualize data to Tracking storage system inform business decisions. performance, capacity, and usage to identify bottlenecks Data Management and Storage and optimize resource Data management storage refers allocation. to the process of optimizing the use of storage devices and protecting Types of Data the integrity of data across various Structured Data media. It involves Organized, easily searchable monitoring software and hardware data, often in databases (e.g., assets, resolving performance spreadsheets). issues, and analyzing real-time Unstructured Data storage capacity to improve the Data without a predefined end-user experience format (e.g., emails, videos) Semi-Structured Data Key Attributes Data with some organizational 1. Performance: Ensuring fast properties (e.g., XML files). access to data while maintaining system performance. Types Of Data Storage 2. Reliability: Protecting data from Cloud storage: Cloud storage loss, corruption, or unauthorized enables organizations to store access. data in the cloud, making it more easily accessible to  authorized users through the created by linking two or more internet. computers and establishing Software-defined storage: standards, or protocols, so that they Software-defined storage is an can work together approach used to manage data through abstraction. It Networks allow multiple users to works by abstracting data from share devices such as printers and the physical storage organized share data, for example for network use. spreadsheets which are collectively File storage: File storage is one known as network resources of the most common data storage approaches used by NETWORK BASICS organizations. It stores data in a Architecture -peer-to-peer, hierarchical format as a single client/server piece of information. Topology - bus, star, ring, Block storage: Block storage hybrid, wireless divides the storage into Protocols - Ethernet, independent blocks. Each block Transmission Control Protocol/ has its own unique identity that Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) ensures data security and Media - coaxial, twisted-pair, provides the freedom to place fiber-optic small pieces of information conveniently for faster retrieval. ARCHITECTURE Object storage: In object Peer-to-peer is the simplest type of storage, the data or files are network; every computer can broken into pieces of communicate directly with every information known as objects. other computer Each object is a self-contained Client/Server networks use a repository with a unique central computer, known as Server identifier to facilitate communication and resource sharing between other computers on a network, which are known as Clients NETWORK TOPOLOGY refers to the geometric arrangement of the actual physical organization of the computers and other network devices in a network Networking / Telecommunications Platforms Protocols ETHERNET Telecommunication System Ethernet uses a method called enable the transmission of data Carrier Sense Multiple Access with over public or private networks Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to manage NETWORK data transmission and prevent a communication, data exchange collisions. It supports a variety of and resource-sharing system speeds, including Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps), and 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps). Commonly used in office networks, home networks, and data centers for connecting computers, switches, routers, and other devices Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) TCP/IP is the foundational protocol Twisted-Pair Cable suite for the Internet and other Twisted-pair cables consist of pairs networks. It combines two main of insulated copper wires twisted protocols: together. They come in two Transmission Control Protocol varieties: (TCP): Ensures reliable, ordered, Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): and error-checked delivery of Commonly used in Ethernet data between applications networks. running on hosts. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has Internet Protocol (IP): Handles additional shielding to reduce addressing and routing of electromagnetic interference. packets across the network, ensuring that they reach the correct destination. TCP/IP is a layered suite, with each layer handling different aspects of communication. IP addresses devices on the network, while TCP ensures the data is delivered The twisting of the pairs reduces correctly. crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, making it suitable for MEDIA transmitting data over shorter Coaxial Cable distances. Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor, an insulating layer, a Fiber-Optic Cable metallic shield, and an outer Fiber-optic cables use light signals insulating layer. It's used for both to transmit data. They consist of a analog and digital transmission. core (made of glass or plastic), cladding, and a protective outer Coaxial cables are highly resistant coating. to electromagnetic interference, Fiber-optic cables offer high-speed making them ideal for transmitting data transmission with minimal signals over long distances without signal loss over long distances. They significant loss of quality. are immune to electromagnetic interference and can support very high bandwidths.  NETWORKING AND efficiency and support business TELECOMMUNICATION PLATFORMS growth. IT infrastructure is built on key hardware components such as KEY FEATURES servers, data centers, storage IBM devices, and networking IBM, or International Business equipment, which form the Machines Corporation, is a major backbone of an organization’s multinational technology computing and data storage company. It specializes in a wide capabilities. Alongside this range of products and services, hardware, essential software— including: including operating systems like 1. Hardware: This includes servers, Windows Server and Linux, storage systems, and virtualization platforms such as mainframes. VMware, and management tools— 2. Software: IBM offers enterprise ensures efficient operation and software solutions like resource management. The databases, middleware, and growing adoption of cloud operating systems. infrastructure, whether public, 3. Cloud Computing: IBM provides private, or hybrid, provides flexible cloud services for infrastructure, and scalable computing platforms, and software. environments, offering services like 4. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Through its Watson platform, IBM Platform as a Service (PaaS), and develops AI and machine Software as a Service (SaaS). learning solutions. Security is a critical aspect, with 5. Consulting and Services: IBM measures such as firewalls, intrusion offers IT consulting, systems detection/prevention systems integration, and technology (IDS/IPS), encryption, and access services. control being integral to protecting data and maintaining network EDS integrity. Electronic Data Systems (EDS) was an American multinational IT WHAT IS CONSULTING AND SYSTEM services company founded in 1962 INTEGRATION SERVICE by Ross Perot. EDS provided a wide help businesses improve their use of range of services, including: technology and manage their IT 1. IT Outsourcing: Managing and systems. Consulting involves operating clients' IT assessing current technology, infrastructure, including data recommending improvements, and centers, networks, and developing strategies to meet applications. business goals. System Integration 2. Consulting Services: Advising focuses on making different IT companies on IT strategy, systems work together seamlessly systems integration, and by designing, implementing, and technology implementation. testing integration solutions. 3. Systems Integration: Combining Together, these services enhance different IT systems and software operational  to work together seamlessly for drive innovation in IT organizations. ecosystems, such as developing 4. Application Services: new tools and methodologies to Developing and maintaining improve business processes. custom software applications for businesses. INTERNET PLATFORMS 5. Business Process Outsourcing Internet platforms are online (BPO): Handling specific business services or application that enables processes for clients, such as users to interact, share, content, or human resources and finance. conduct transaction over the internet. ACCENTURE They range from social media sites Accenture is a global professional like Facebook and Twitter to e- services company that offers a commerce platforms like Amazon. range of services in technology, These platforms provide spaces for consulting, and operations. In the users to connect, communicate, context of IT ecosystems, and engage with each other or Accenture plays several key roles: with digital content. They often 1. Consulting and Strategy: have specific features, rules, and Accenture provides advisory policies governing user behavior services to help organizations within their ecosystems. design and implement IT strategies that align with their HISTORY OF INTERNET PLATFORMS business goals. This includes TIMELINE digital transformation, 1969: Arpanet was the first real technology modernization, and network to run on packet switching innovation strategies. technology (new at the time) 2. Technology Integration: They 1970: An Arpanet network was help integrate and implement established between Harvard, MT, advanced technologies such as and BBN in 1970. cloud computing, artificial 1971: Email was first developed in intelligence, and data analytics 1971 by Ray Tomlinson within existing IT ecosystems. 1972: France began its own 3. Managed Services: Accenture Arpanet-like project in 1972 called offers ongoing management CYCLADES. and support for IT systems, 1973: The first trans-Atlantic ensuring they run efficiently and connection and the popularity of adapt to changing business emailing. needs. 1974: The beginning of TCP/IP 1974 4. Partnerships: They often was a breakthrough year. collaborate with leading 1975: The email client with the technology providers (like popularity of emailing. the first Microsoft, Oracle, and SAP) to modern email program was deliver specialized solutions and developed by John Vittal leverage their partners’ 1977: The PC modem 1977 was a technologies. big year for the development of 5. Innovation: Accenture invests in the internet as we know it research and development to today. 1978: Spam is born 6. DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE The Bulletin Board System (BBS) 7. CELLULAR CONNECTION 1979: MUD - The earliest multiplayer 8. CABLE INTERNET games Usenet 1979 also ushered into the ONLINE PLATFORMS scene SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS 1980: ENQUIRE software Social Media Platforms includes the 1982: The modern emoticon was Facebook, YouTube and other born. social media which allow us to 1983: Arpanet computers switch create not only our personal over to TCP/IP accounts but also pages and 1984: DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS) groups where you can share 1985: Virtual communities 1985 content brought the development of the BLOGGING PLATFORMS WELL. Blogging Platforms are broadcast 1986: Protocol wars style communication systems that The so-called Protocol wars began enable authors to publish articles, in 1986 opinions, or product reviewswhich 1987: The internet grows can be delivered to standalone 1988: IRC-Internet Relay Chat websites, emails, feed systems and First major malicious internet base social networks. attack 1989: AOL is launch TYPES OF NETWORK DEVICES The proposal for the World Wide 1. REPEATER - A repeater operates Web at the physical layers. 1990: World Wide Web protocols finished 2. Hub - A hub is a basically multi- First commercial dial-up ISP port repeater. The first search engine Hub has three types: 1991: First Web Page created Active hub – Its serves both as a First content-based search protocol repeater as well as a wiring center. MP3 becomes a standard Passive hub – These are the hubs 1994: Netscape navigator was that collect wiring from nodes and released, along the first e- power supply from the active hub. commerce transaction. Intelligent hub- Its works like an 1995: The internet was active hub and includes remote commercialized. management capabilities 1996: The launch of social media 1997: Wifi 3. BRIDGE - A bridge operates at 1998: Google Internet the data link layer. Bridges has two types: TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION Transparent Bridges- These bridges 1. SATELLITE CONNECTION make use of two processes i.e. 2. WIRELESS CONNECTION bridge forwarding and bridge 3. ISDN (Integrated Service Digital learning. Network) Source Routing Bridges- Routing 4. DIAL-UP CONNECTION operation is performed by the 5. BROADBAND CONNECTION source station and frame specifies terminal connected on a local which route to follow. area network (LAN). 4. Switch - A switch is a multiport − is a software programme that bridge with a buffer and a controls other software and design that can boost its hardware that runs on a network, efficiency (a large number of − and the ability to manage a ports impkly less traffic) and network name directory, security, performance. and other housekeeping aspects 5. Routers - A router is a device like of a network. a switch that routes data packets based on their IP NETWORK SERVICES Addresses. File Sharing - Allows users to 6. Gateway - Is a passage to access shared files and connect two networks that may directories across the work upon different networking network models Print sharing - Enables multiple 7. Brouter - It is also known as the users to send print jobs to shared bridging router is a device that printers. combines features of both User Administration bridge and router. − Administrators can create or 8. Network Interface Card - Is a remove user accounts as network adapter that is used to needed. connect the computer to the − Customizes user profiles, including network. settings and preferences. − Implements authentication The Internet of Things Integrates mechanisms (e.g., passwords, everyday “things” with the internet. biometrics) to verify users. The term IoT. Or Internet of Things, − Assigns permissions based on refers to the collective network of roles, ensuring users only access connected devices and the resources they need. technology that facilitates − Organizes users into groups for communication between devices easier permission management. and the cloud, as well as between − Applies specific policies and the devices themselves. configurations to groups rather than individual users HOW DOES THE INTERNET OF THINGS Data Back up WORK? − Configures regular backups 1. SMART DEVICES (daily, weekly) to ensure data is 2. INTERNET OF THINGS consistently saved. APPLICATION − Allows manual backups when 3. A GRAPICAL USER INTERFACE. needed, especially before significant changes. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS − Makes a complete copy of all NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS) data, providing a comprehensive − is a computer operating system restore point. designed primarily to support − Backs up only the data that has workstation, personal computer, changed since the last backup, and, in some instances, older saving time and storage. − Backs up all changes made since Network Cabling the last full backup. − supports worldwide electronic − Saves backups on local devices communications (such as by or servers for quick access. computer, phone, or fax), − Utilizes off-site or cloud-based allowing organizations, storage solutions for added corporations, and individuals to security and disaster recovery. exchange information by both − Provides clear methods for voice and data, including restoring data from backups multimedia. (Network Cabling quickly and efficiently. Illuminated, authors: Shimonski, − Regularly tests backup restore Sheedy, Steener, 2006) procedures to ensure data can be recovered successfully − Communications cables are used to interconnect, connect and Advantages of Network Operating transfer data and information Systems between computers, routers, Highly stable due to central switches and storage area server. networks. (TotalComms Training) Provide good security. Upgradation of new technology Identify the different campus and hardware can be easily network challenges implemented in the network. 1. Traffic Volume - The maximum Provide remote access to amount of data transmitted servers from different locations over an internet connection in a given amount of time. Disadvantages of Network Operating Systems 2. Number of users - The number of Depend on the central location faculty members and students to perform the operations. attending universities and High cost to buying server. colleges frequently increases, Regular updating and which raises the need for maintenance are required network capacity. References: 3. Security - Large student What Is A Network Operating populations and open access System (NOS)? - ITU Online make it more difficult to regulate Network Services – Poe who connects to the network, Networking Operating System – which can result in security Umantra Mishra problems. It is crucial to protect sensitive data, including ACTIVITY #1: financial information, academic Set Up a Shared Folder research, and student records. 1. Create a shared folder on your computer. Invite peers to access 4. Internet - Congestion and slower it and share files. speeds might result from using 2. Experiment with different the network simultaneously. permission settings (Read, Write)  Understand the network Cabling both ends for easy rules identification 1. Cable Types and Categories Secure Cables Properly: Use Twisted Pair Cables (e.g., cable ties or other fasteners to Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a, Cat7): secure cables, but avoid over- Commonly used in Ethernet tightening, as this can networks. The higher the damage the cables. category, the better the performance and higher data 4. Cable Management rates. Structured Cabling: Follow Fiber Optic Cables: Used for structured cabling principles long-distance and high-speed to ensure a clean and connections. They are organized installation. This immune to electromagnetic includes using patch panels, interference (EMI) and offer racks, and cable higher bandwidth than management systems. twisted pair cables. Pathways: Use cable trays, conduits, or raceways to 2. Distance Limitations organize and protect cables. Twisted Pair Cables: Typically, Cat5e and Cat6 cables have 5. Environmental Considerations a maximum recommended Temperature and Humidity: length of 100 meters (328 feet) Install cables in environments for a single run. Beyond this, where temperature and signal degradation can occur. humidity are controlled to Fiber Optic Cables: Distances prevent degradation. can vary widely based on the Plenum Spaces: In spaces type of fiber (single-mode or where air circulates for HVAC multi-mode) and the purposes (plenum spaces), transmission equipment used. use plenum-rated cables that Single-mode can reach are fire-resistant. distances up to several kilometers. 6. Compliance with Standards ANSI/TIA-568: A set of 3. Installation Practices telecommunications Avoid Sharp Bends: Cables standards from the should not be bent beyond Telecommunications Industry their minimum bend radius, as Association (TIA) that specifies this can damage the cable how to design, build, and and impair performance. manage a cabling system Maintain Separation from that will support various Power Cables: Network cables communication systems. should be kept away from ISO/IEC 11801: An power cables to avoid international standard that electromagnetic interference specifies general-purpose (EMI). telecommunication cabling Proper Labeling: All cables systems that are suitable for a should be properly labeled at wide range of applications 7. Testing and Certification 2. Equipment Room (ER) Cable Testing: After is defined as the area where the installation, cables should be entrance cabling connects to tested using appropriate tools the building’s internal wiring to ensure they meet infrastructure. performance standards (e.g., Components: Contains patch continuity tests, attenuation, panels, network switches, routers, crosstalk). and servers. It may also include Certification: For professional power supply systems like UPS installations, certification of (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and the cabling system may be cooling systems required to ensure compliance with standards. 3. Backbone Cabling (Vertical Cabling) 8. Grounding and Bonding The cabling that interconnects Ensure that all network the equipment rooms, components, including racks telecommunications rooms, and and cabinets, are properly entrance facilities within a grounded and bonded to building or across a campus. It prevent electrical hazards often runs vertically within a and to reduce noise. building. Components: Includes cables Identify the different Network (typically fiber optic or high- cabling subsystems performance copper), patch panels, and connectors. Backbone cabling supports the interconnection of different subsystems. 4. Telecommunications Room (TR) or Telecommunications Closet (TC) A room or closet that houses the telecommunications equipment and the terminations of the horizontal cabling system. It serves as the connection point 1. Entrance Facilities (EF) between the backbone and is defined as the point where the horizontal cabling. local service provider or private Components: Includes patch network brings the outside panels, network switches, cross- connection to the building. connects, and sometimes active Components: Includes cables, network equipment network interface devices, primary protectors, and possibly transition 5. Horizontal Cabling hardware if different cable types The cabling that runs from the are used. telecommunications room to the individual workstations,  devices, or equipment within a To specify a structured cabling floor of a building. It is often system generic enough to installed in a star topology. support both voice & data Components: Includes cables (e.g., To establish technical & Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a), patch panels, performance guidelines and jacks, connectors, and sometimes give some basic guidelines for consolidation points or MUTOAs the planning and installation of (MultiUser Telecommunications structured cabling systems Outlet Assemblies). technology 6. Work Area (WA) The ANSI/TIA-568-C standard The area where end-user addresses the following things: devices are located, such as Subsystems of the structured offices or cubicles. It includes cabling system. the network outlets and the Minimum requirements for the cabling connecting end user telecommunications cabling. devices to the network. Installation methods and Components: Includes the network networking practices. outlet, patch cords, and the end- Connector & pin assignments. user devices such as computers, The life span of a phones, and printers. The work area telecommunications cabling subsystem facilitates the final system technology (which connection between the network should exceed 10 years) and the user's equipment. Media types & performance specifications for the latest Identify the different standards and horizontal and backbone codes cabling. 1. TIA/EIA Standards: Connecting the hardware Telecommunications performance specifications Industry Association/Electronic Recommended topology & Industries Alliance standards for distances cabling (e.g., TIA-568). 2. ISO/IEC 11801 The ANSI/TIA/EIA-568 standard was The ISO/EIC is the international built and has evolved over the standard followed worldwide for years into its current form for many information technology systems. simple reasons: As its name suggests, it To build a network cabling standardizes and regulates specification that would support structured cabling systems within more than one vendor an IT network. application The ISO standards are strictly To give direction of the design of reviewed every five years, with all the telecommunications the last major review & revision equipment and cabling items taking place in the year 2017. that are intended to serve Section 11801 deals with all the commercial companies. general standards for network cabling in any commercial building. The section covers  data, voice & video services for physical connections and wiring cabling, along with some within a network infrastructure, specifications for both copper ensuring proper installation for cabling & fiber-optic cabling. optimal data transmission. Standard for Cables Colors 2. Crimping Tools: Cable colors are not universally is a device that accepted due to variations in is used to make release dates, industries, and cold weld joints countries. Technical associations between wires like Telecommunications Industry and a connector through Association, Department of deforming one or both of them Defense, and IEEE aim to establish to hold the other. A special a universally accepted standard. connector is used to join metals CableWholesale offers alternatives together. for cord consistency until a universally accepted standard is 3. Fiber Optic Tools: established. are used to install, maintain, and test fiber optic cables, Patch Cable connectors, and networks. Fiber Grey: standard network optic tools are essential for connections ensuring that fiber optic Black: used as a generic, networks are installed and default color maintained correctly, so that Purple: non-ethernet digital they can provide reliable and connections high-speed data transmission. Blue: terminal server connections Green: crossover connection Yellow: POE connection Orange: non-ethernet, analog connections Pink: additional color option for any function Red: IP cameras White: additional color option for any function Distinguish different types of tools and equipment’s 1. Cable Testers: is a specialized tool that network technicians rely on to assess the functionality and integrity of network cabling. Its primary purpose is to verify the 4. Punch Down Tools: building a It is small used for business inserting network, wire you will into insulation-displacement need one connectors on punch down or more blocks, patch panels, keystone routers. modules, and surface mount boxes. 8. Patch Panels: 5. Ethernet Cables: is a piece are of used to networking provide hardware an that internet contains multiple ports to connection, and connect connect different Ethernet devices to a local network. They cables. Patch panels allow you plug into Ethernet ports on a to label individual ports and variety of devices. The most organize your cables in a central common use for an Ethernet location, making it easier to cable is connecting a WiFi router manage. or modem to the internet entry port or telephone line. 9. Applicator systems: makes it 6. RJ45 cables: easier to are essential identify and accessories trace cables for networking quickly when devices in problems Ethernet connections. The occur or when a move, add or cables facilitate data and change is required power transmission, letting two or more network devices References: communicate flawlessly. 1. Tools, materials and equipment for networking | PPT 7. Switches and Routers: (slideshare.net) − A switch connects multiple 2. Network materials, tools and devices to create a network, testing devices.pptx − A router connects multiple (slideshare.net) switches, and their respective 3. What are the most common networks, to form an even network cable standards and larger network. specifications, such as TIA/EIA, − These networks may be in a IEEE, and ISO/IEC? single location or across (linkedin.com) multiple locations. When 4. What is a Structured Cabling communications, and Network System? applications. (gdcitsolutions.com) 5. What is network cabling? - Total Introduction of Windows Server Comms Training Windows Server is a line of Microsoft 6. Network Cabling Illuminated - operating systems (OSes) Robert Shimonski, Richard T. comprised of extremely powerful Steiner, Sean M. Sheedy - machines. Windows Server was first Google Books launched in April 2003. It’s typically 7. Structured Cabling Standards installed on heavy-use servers Explained | Telco Data serving as a backbone for most IT (telcodata.com) companies, applications, and 8. Different Cable Colors and Their services. The server handles the Uses: the Complete Guide administrative group-related (cablewholesale.com) activities on a network. It organizes, stores, sends, and receives files from devices connected to a network. Advantages Scalability: Windows Server offers flexibility in scaling based on organizational needs, supporting everything from small businesses to large enterprises. The server editions come in various versions to handle different workloads, whether it's basic file sharing or high-end cloud services. Remote Access Capabilities: It MICROSOFT WINDOWS SERVER includes features like Remote What is Microsoft Window Server? Desktop Services (RDS), which Windows Server is the platform allows users to access and control for building an infrastructure of their servers remotely. This feature is connected applications, beneficial for businesses that have networks, and web services, employees working from different from the workgroup to the data locations. center. Windows Server bridges on-premises environments with Security Features: Windows Server Azure, adding additional layers includes robust security features, of security while helping you such as BitLocker, Windows modernize your applications Defender, Encrypted File System and infrastructure. (EFS), and Windows Firewall. These Designed by Microsoft, Windows features help protect against Server is a group of operating malware, ransomware, and systems to support enterprises unauthorized access and small and medium-sized businesses with data storage, Extensive Software Support: ideal for mission-critical systems that Microsoft Windows Server is require high availability. compatible with a vast range of software applications. Many Resource-Intensive: Windows Server enterprise software solutions are can be resource-intensive, requiring designed to run on Windows more CPU power and RAM platforms, which ensures businesses compared to some leaner have access to many options for alternatives like Linux-based servers. running their operations. This could impact performance on less powerful hardware or in cases User-Friendly Interface: Windows where resources are spread thin Server has a familiar interface that across the network. resembles the desktop version of Windows, making it easier for Complex Licensing Model: The administrators familiar with the licensing structure for Windows Windows operating system to Server can be quite complex, with manage and navigate. This different versions and editions reduces the learning curve for users based on features and capacities. already accustomed to Microsoft This complexity can lead to products. confusion and unexpected costs if not managed carefully. Disadvantages Cost: One of the significant WINDOWS SERVER VERSIONS downsides of Windows Server is the high cost of licensing. Unlike many Linux-based server platforms, which are free or open-source, Windows Server requires businesses to purchase licenses, which can be expensive, especially for smaller companies. Hardware Requirements: Windows Server tends to have higher system requirements compared to some other server operating systems. This means companies may need to invest in more powerful hardware to run Windows Server efficiently, which can add to overall costs. Frequent Updates and Reboots: Windows Server requires regular updates, and sometimes these updates necessitate system reboots. This can lead to temporary downtime, which might not be  WINDOWS NT 3.1 by Windows NT 4.0 Workstation and Windows NT 3.1, Microsoft's first Server. major release, was a 32-bit system, retaining the desktop environment. Originally a rewrite of OS/2, it sold 300,000 copies before being replaced by Windows NT 3.5 in 1994 WINDOWS 2000 WINDOWS 2000 WINDOWS 2000 Windows 2000 introduced Active Directory, a directory service for managing network objects, allowing administrators to perform WINDOWS NT 3.5 tasks like virtual private network Windows NT 3.5, a major release of configuration and data encryption. Microsoft's Windows NT operating Key features included Microsoft system, was released in 1994 to Management Console, NTFS 3.0 file improve performance. Known as system, and three editions. "Daytona" after the Daytona International Speedway, it was declared obsolete in 2001. WINDOWS SERVER 2003 WINDOWS NT 3.51 Microsoft introduced Windows Windows NT 3.51, the third version Server 2003, offering security of Microsoft's Windows NT operating improvements over Windows 2000, system, was released in 1995, including hardened IIS, server roles, offering client/server support for expanded encryption, built-in inter-operating with Windows 95. Its firewall, NAT support, and Volume successor, Windows NT 4.0, Shadow Copy Service. The release followed in 2000. Mainstream was available in four editions: support ended in 2000, 2001, and Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, 2002, with both editions succeeded and Web.  Enterprise, Datacenter, and Web editions. 2005: WINDOWS SERVER 2003 R2 Microsoft introduced the R2 designation for Windows Server 2009: WINDOWS SERVER 2008 R2 2003 R2, eliminating the need for Microsoft's Windows Server 2008 R2 new licenses. The release improved offers enhanced scalability and security and safety features, availability, enhanced Active including Active Directory Directory, and Remote Desktop Federation Services, Active Services (RDS) functionality. It Directory Application Mode, file includes BranchCache and replication, and data compression DirectAccess for remote work, for branch office servers. It also shares administrative and security introduced the Security functionality from Windows Vista, Configuration Wizard for consistent and transitions from a 32-bit to a 64- security policies across multiple bit version. machines. 2012: WINDOWS SERVER 2012 2008: WINDOWS SERVER 2008 Microsoft has introduced the Windows Server 2008 introduced "Cloud OS" in Windows server 2012, Hyper-V virtualization software, enhancing cloud-related features failover clustering, Event Viewer, and updating the operating Server Core, and Server Manager system's storage infrastructure and console. It also improved Hyper-V virtualization platform. New networking stack and Active features include Hyper-V virtual Directory, and came in Standard, switch, Hyper-V Replica, Storage Spaces, and ReFS file system. The server version comes in four editions: Essentials, Foundation, Standard, and Datacenter, with different license options. 2017: SEMI-ANNUAL CHANNEL AND LONG-TERM SERVICING CHANNEL RELEASES Microsoft split Windows Server into 2013: WINDOWS SERVER 2012 R2 two channels: the Semi Annual Microsoft updated Windows Server Channel (SAC) and the Long-Term 2012 R2, introducing new features Servicing Channel (LTSC). SAC like Desired State Configuration, caters to DevOps frameworks with Storage tiering, and Work Folders. a shorter release cycle, with These changes improve releases every six months. LTSC virtualization, storage, networking, offers a more traditional release information security, and web cycle, with five years of mainstream services, ensuring consistency and support followed by five years of performance. extended support. Microsoft plans to add most enhancements from SAC releases into LTSC releases. The first SAC release, Windows Server version 1709, was released in October 2017. 2012: WINDOWS SERVER 2019 Windows Server 2019 is Microsoft's thirteenth version of the Windows Server operating system, released on October 2, 2018, and succeeded by Windows Server 2016: WINDOWS SERVER 2016 2022 on August 18, 2021. Microsoft introduces new features Mainstream support ended on for workload migrations, including January 9, 2024, and extended Docker containers, software- support will end on January 9, 2029. defined networking, Nano Server, Hyper-V shielded VM, and Network Controller, with Windows Server 2016 available in Standard and Datacenter editions  2016 to align with iOS, watchOS, and tvOS branding. MacOS supports three major processor architectures: PowerPC-based Macs, Intel architecture, and Apple silicon transition. HISTORY MacOS, a successor to the classic Mac OS, was developed by NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs. The Unix-like NeXTSTEP WINDOWS SERVER 2022 operating system was launched in Windows Server 2022 is Microsoft's 1989, based on the Mach kernel fourteenth major long-term from Carnegie Mellon University. servicing channel (LTSC) release, Apple acquired NeXT in 1997, based on the "Iron" codebase. allowing OPENSTEP to serve as the Released on August 18, 2021, it is basis for MacOS's next generation similar to Windows 10 version 21H2, operating system. MacOS X, requires x64 processors, and is named after the Roman numeral incompatible with Windows 10 10, evolved over time, adding and updates. It will be succeeded by removing applications, such as the Windows Server 2025. iPod music player and music software, and introducing the iPhone in 2007. ADVANTAGES Stability and Security: Mac OS X is known for its stability and lower vulnerability to viruses compared to Windows. Its Unix-based core provides strong security, reducing the risk of malware and unauthorized access. MACINTOSH OS MacOS, originally Mac OS X, is the High-Quality Software: Apple’s primary operating system for native applications, such as Final Apple's Mac computers and is the Cut Pro and Logic Pro, are second most widely used desktop optimized for macOS and provide OS after Microsoft Windows. It powerful tools for creative succeeded classic Mac OS, the professionals. primary Macintosh operating system from 1984 to 2001. MacOS Optimized Hardware and Software was first released in 2001 and has Synergy: Since Apple designs both since been a part of Apple's other the hardware and software, operating systems, iOS, iPadOS, macOS runs efficiently on Apple watchOS, tvOS, and audioOS. The computers, maximizing name was changed to "macOS" in performance. User-Friendly Interface: macOS software, and software offers an intuitive and clean development. It also includes interface that is easy to navigate, native apps like Safari (web making it appealing for users who browser), iCloud integration, prioritize simplicity. and productivity apps (Pages, Keynote, Numbers). DISADVANTAGES 3. ”Continuity and Handoff” Limited Compatibility with Non- macOS works seamlessly with Apple Hardware: macOS is primarily other Apple devices, allowing designed to run on Apple devices. users to answer phone calls, It doesn’t work well with custom- send text messages, or copy- built or third-party systems, limiting paste content between their hardware flexibility. Iphone, Ipad, and Mac. 4. ”Security and Privacy” macOS is Higher Cost: Apple devices tend to designed with designed with be more expensive than PCs built-in privacy controls, running other operating systems, encryption,and regular security which may be a disadvantage for updates, Features like budget-conscious users. Gatekeeper, File Vault, and system integrity protection help Limited Customization: macOS keep the system secure. offers less customization in 5. ”Updates” macOS receives comparison to Windows, where yearly updates that introduce users have more control over new features, enhance system settings, configurations, and performance, and improve appearance. security. Some of the recent versions include macOS Software Limitations for Gamers and Monterey, macOS, Big Sur, Developers: While macOS is great macOS Ventura. for creative professionals, it lacks support for many games and TIMELINE OF RELEASE: specialized developer tools that Mac OS X Public Beta are more readily available on Main article: Mac OS X Public Windows Beta On September 13, 2000, Apple FEATURES OF MACOS released a US$29.95 "preview" 1. “User Interface” macOS is version of Mac OS X, internally known for its polished graphical codenamed Kodiak, to gain interface, including the Dock for feedback from users. The "PB", as it application shortcuts, Finder for was known, marked the first public file management, and top availability of the Aqua interface menu bar for system and and Apple made many changes to application controls. the UI based on customer 2. ”Software Ecosystem” macOS feedback. Mac OS X Public Beta supports a wide range of expired and ceased to function in professional-grade software for Spring 2001 tasks like graphic design, video editing, music production, and  Mac OS X 10.1 Main article:Mac OS X 10.1 Later that year, on September 25, 2001, Mac OS X 10.1 (Puma) was released, offering improved performance and missing features like DVD playback. Apple released it as a free upgrade CD for 10.0 users and a boxed version for Mac OS 9. In January 2002, Mac OS X became the default operating system for all Macintosh products. Mac OS X 10.0 Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar Main article:Mac OS X 10.0 Main article: Mac OS X Jaguar On March 24, 2001, Apple released On August 23, 2002, Apple released Mac OS X 10.0 (internally Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, the first to codenamed Cheetah).Simply use its code name as part of the releasing Mac OS X was received branding. It introduced by the Macintosh community as a performance improvements, great accomplishment,for attempts updated Aqua's visual design, and to overhaul the Mac OS had been over 150 new user-facing features, underway since 1996, and delayed including Quartz Extreme, Address by countless setbacks. Book, and iChat. \  Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard Mac OS X 10.3 Panther Main article:Mac OS X Leopard Main article:Mac OS X Panther Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, released Mac OS X v10.3 Panther, released on October 26, 2007, was Apple's on October 24, 2003, significantly largest update to Mac OS X, improved performance and user featuring over 300 new features. It interface with new features like a supports both PowerPC- and Intel brushed-metal interface, Fast user x86- based Macintosh computers, switching, Exposé, FileVault, Safari, but dropped support for the G3 iChat AV, improved PDF rendering, processor. Leopard also introduced and greater Microsoft Windows new features in Mail and iChat, interoperability and security features. Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard Main article: Mac OS X Tiger Main article:Mac OS X Snow Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger, released in Leopard April 29, 2005, introduced over 200 Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, new features, including Spotlight, released on August 28, 2009, Dashboard, Smart Folders, and focused on improving updated Mail. It required a Mac performance, efficiency, and with 256 MB and a FireWire port. stability, with notable changes The first Intel-based Macs were including freeing up disk space, a released in January 2006, with the more responsive Finder, faster Time Intel release lacking support for the Machine backups, and a powerful Classic environment. Preview application.  163.com and 126.com services for Mail, Contacts. OS X Lion was announced at WWD C 2011 at Moscone West. OS X OS X 10.9 Mavericks 10.7 Lion Main article: OS X Mavericks Main article: OS X Lion OS X 10.9 Mavericks was released OS X 10.7 Lion, released on July 20, on October 22, 2013. It was a free 2011, introduced features from upgrade to all users running Snow Apple's iOS, including Launchpad Leopard or later with a 64-bit Intel and multi-touch gestures. It processor. Its changes include the removed Rosetta, making it addition of the previously iOS-only incompatible with PowerPC Maps and iBooks applications, applications. GUI changes improvements to the Notification included auto-hiding scrollbars and Center, enhancements to several Mission Control, unifying applications, and many under-the- applications into a single interface. hood improvements. Applications resumed in the same state as iOS, and documents auto- saved by default. OS X 10.10 Yosemite Main article: OS X Yosemite OS X 10.10 OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion Yosemite was released on October Main article: OS X Mountain Lion 16, 2014. It features a redesigned OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, released user interface similar to that of iOS on July 25, 2012, is the first annual 7, intended to feature a more update to OS X, aligning with iOS 5. minimal, text-based 'flat' design, It includes features from iOS 5, with use of translucency effects including Game Center, iMessage and intensely saturated colors. support, and Reminders. Chinese features are also introduced like Baidu support for Safari search, QQ,  macOS 10.13 High Sierra Main article: macOS High Sierra macOS 10.13 High Sierra was released to the public on September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement- based update having very few OS X 10.11 El Capitan new features visible to the user, Main article: OS X El Capitan OS including updates to Safari, Photos, X 10.11 and Mail, among other changes. El Capitan, released on September 30, 2015, focuses on improving the Mac experience and system performance. It includes public transport integration, GUI improvements, San Francisco font, and System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, introduced in iOS 8, accelerates system-level rendering and draws calls for faster graphics and gaming experiences. macOS 10.14 Mojave Main article: macOS Mojave macOS 10.14 Mojave was released on September 24, 2018. It was the first version to require a GPU that supports Metal. Mojave also changed the system software update mechanism from the App Store to a new panel in System Preferences. App updates remain macOS 10.12 Sierra in the App Store. Main article: macOS Sierra macOS 10.12 Sierra was released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes. macOS 10.15 Catalina Main article: macOS Catalina macOS 10.15  Catalina was released on FaceTime, allowing simultaneous October 7, 2019. Updates device use and task included enhanced voice automation. control, and bundled apps for music, video, and podcasts that together replace the functions of iTunes, and the ability to use an iPad as an external monitor. Catalina officially dropped support for 32-bit applications. macOS 13 Ventura Main article: macOS Ventura macOS Ventura, Its features a redesigned System Preferences, native apps like Freeform, Weather, and Clock, Continuity Camera for video conferencing, macOS 11 Big Sur Siri's iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 Main article: macOS Big Sur appearance, Mail schedule macOS Big Sur. This is the first send and undo send, and time the major version number Message undo send and edit. It of the operating system has also introduces Maps, Metal 3, been incremented since the Lockdown mode, and ambient Mac OS X Public Beta in 2000. It background sound accessibility. brings Arm support, new icons, and aesthetic user interface changes to the system. macOS 14 Sonoma Main article: macOS Sonoma MacOS Sonoma released on macOS 12 Monterey September 26, 2023, announced Main article: macOS Monterey at WWDC, revamped desktop macOS Monterey released on widgets, optimized game October 25, 2021, announced performance, and added at WWDC, introduced Universal smoother animations for Control, Focus modes, Shortcuts, notifications and lock screen. It a redesigned Safari Web also introduced slow-motion browser, and improvements to screensavers of different  locations worldwide, gradually Server 2003. Windows Server 2008 slowing down as desktop introduces various enhancements wallpapers when logged in. in terms of functionality, security, and manageability, making it a suitable choice for businesses that require a robust server environment. ADVANTAGES Wide Application Support: Windows Server 2008 supports a broad range of software and applications, making it a versatile choice for macOS 15 Sequoia businesses of all sizes. Main article: macOS Sequoia macOS Sequoia was announced Enhanced Security Features: With during the WWDC keynote speech the inclusion of features like on June 10, 2024. It adds support for BitLocker, Network Access Apple Intelligence features (for Protection (NAP), and enhanced example a redesigned Siri, writing firewall management, Windows tools, Image Playground, Genmoji, Server 2008 offers better protection and system-wide integration with against security threats. GPT-4o), as well as adding iPhone Mirroring, a new dedicated Improved Performance and Passwords app for faster autofilling Scalability: This server edition and more organised passwords, improves system performance and and window tiling - a similar feature scalability with features such as to Microsoft Windows' window enhanced multicore processor snapping feature. support and better memory management. DISADVANTAGES End of Support: Windows Server 2008 reached its end of life in January 2020, which means it no longer receives security updates from Microsoft, making it vulnerable to security threats unless businesses use extended support services. MICROSOFT WINDOWS SERVER 2008 Microsoft Windows Server 2008 is an Cost of Licensing: Like most enterprise-level operating system Microsoft products, Windows Server designed to provide a solid 2008 requires a license, which can platform for networking, be costly depending on the applications, and web services. number of users and servers in use. Released on February 27, 2008, it is part of the Windows NT family and Resource Intensive: Windows Server was built to succeed Windows 2008 may require significant hardware resources (memory, 4. Network Access Protection processing power) for optimal (NAP) performance, especially for large- Network Access Protection is a scale operations. feature designed to enforce compliance with network health KEY FEATURES policies. It verifies the health status 1. Server Core Installation Option of computers accessing the One of the most notable features network, ensuring they meet of Windows Server 2008 is the security standards, such as having introduction of the Server Core up-to-date antivirus software and installation option. Server Core is a the latest patches installed. If a minimal installation without a computer fails to meet these graphical user interface (GUI), requirements, NAP restricts its which reduces the system's access to the network. footprint and minimizes the attack surface. Administrators interact with 5. Enhanced Security Features the system mainly through the Windows Server 2008 provides a command line, which also results in range of security features, including fewer updates and improved BitLocker Drive Encryption to security. protect sensitive data and the Windows Firewall with advanced 2. Hyper-V Virtualization security settings for controlling Hyper-V is Microsoft’s native network traffic. Additionally, the hypervisor, allowing users to run operating system improves role multiple virtual machines on a based access control, making it single physical server. This feature is easier for administrators to define essential for businesses specific permissions based on roles implementing server consolidation within the organization. and optimizing their hardware resources. Hyper-V in Windows 6. Improved Active Directory Server 2008 supports 64-bit Active Directory (AD) in Windows computing, multi-processor Server 2008 saw significant environments, and provides tools improvements. One key feature is for effective virtual machine Read-Only Domain Controllers management. (RODC), which enhances security in branch office environments by 3. Windows PowerShell preventing changes from being Windows PowerShell is a powerful made locally. RODC provides an command-line shell and scripting additional layer of protection, language designed for system especially in distributed administrators. It automates tasks environments where physical and simplifies configuration security may not be as tight management across large networks. Windows Server 2008 7. Failover Clustering introduced PowerShell 1.0, which This version of Windows Server provides improved administrative introduces enhancements to control and automation failover clustering, ensuring high capabilities. availability for critical applications. The improved clustering capabilities it is designed to support multiple make it easier for organizations to users simultaneously implement disaster recovery plans written in C, which contributed and ensure continuity of services. to its widespread adoption organizes files into a tree-like 8. End of Support structure which simplifies system While Windows Server 2008 was a management widely used and successful server includes file permissions and OS, its lifecycle ended on January ownership, access controls for 14, 2020. Microsoft stopped users and groups which providing security updates, enhances security. patches, and technical support, urging organizations to upgrade to newer versions like Windows Server 2016 or 2019 for continued support and security improvements REFERENCES − Microsoft Corporation. "Windows Server 2008 Overview." Microsoft Docs, [https://docs.microsoft.com](http s://docs.microsoft.com). − "Windows Server 2008 End of Support." Microsoft Support, Microsoft, [https://support.microsoft.com](h How was Linux created? ttps://support.microsoft.com). Created by Linus Torvalds − "Windows Server 2008 Features." Inspired from Minix TechNet, Microsoft TechNet Torvalds began development Library, on August 1991 [https://technet.microsoft.com](h First version, Version 0.01 was ttps://technet.microsoft.com). released on Sept. 1991 LINUX UNIX How was UNIX created? It was derived from MULTICS - MULTiplexed Information Computing System Developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, et al. It was first called UNICS - Well known Linux distros for UNiplexed Information Networking Computing System Debian Released in 1993 by Ian Murdock Key Features? supports multitasking Kali Released in 2013 by Offense Berkeley Software Distribution Security WHAT IS BSD? BSD stands for "Berkeley Software Distribution". Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) is a group of related open- source Unix-like operating systems (OS) with origins in early versions of Research Unix at Bell Labs. BSD is configured for internet hosting, web hosting, and Fedora hosting many servers on one Derived from Red Hat Linux system. It is the first OS to have which was released in 1994. added an internet protocol. BSD Red Hat Linux was discontinued OSes have a very strongly in 2003 enforced time-sharing system. Red Hat Inc., developer of Red It is the name of distributions of Hat Linux, decided to focus on source code from the University RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) of California, Berkeley, which Red Hat Linux was evolved to were originally extensions to Fedora Core through AT&T’s Research UNIX® community support in 2003. operating system. The overall operating system comprises: The BSD kernel The C library, the base API for the system. Utilities such as shells, file utilities, compilers and linkers. The X Window system, which handles graphical display. RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) Many other programs and commercial Linux distro utilities. developed by Red Hat Inc. best for commercial and enterprise use.  BRIEF HISTORY OF BSD successful evaluation, a production 1979: Early Filesystem Work version of soft updates was written The first work on the UNIX file system for BSD in 1996. at Berkeley attempted to improve both the reliability and the 1999: Snapshots throughput of the file system. In 1999, the file system added the ability to take snapshots. A 1982: Birth of the Fast File System filesystem snapshot is a frozen The first version of the current BSD image of a file system at a given file system was written in 1982 and instant in time. became widely distributed in 4.2BSd. 2001: Raising the Blocksize,Again 1986: Dropping Disk-Geometry Calculations 2002: Background Fsck The BSD filesystem organization After soft updates, there is value in divides a disk partition into one or having a version of fsck (file system more areas, each of which is called consistency check) that can run in a cylinder group. the background on an active file system to find and recover any lost 1987: Filesystem Stacking blocks and adjust inodes with By 1987, it became desirable to find overly high link counts. ways of providing new filesystem features without having to alter the 2003: Multi-Terabyte Support current stable filesystem code. A new file system WAS BUILT, one Stacking several file systems on top that would use 64-bit block of one another were implemented pointers. in the 4.4BSD system. 2004:Access-Control Lists 1988: Raising the Block size Generally referred to as an ACL. It By 1988, disk capacity block size replaces the group permissions for was raised to 8-kbyte blocks with 1- a file with a more specific list of the kbyte fragments. users who are permitted to access the files. 1990: Dynamic Block Reallocation 2005: Mandatory Access The system places small file blocks Controls in small areas of free space within Data labels provide permissions for the storage, then it gets a mandatory access control (MAC) reallocated to an area with bigger framework enforced by the kernel. space as the file grows in size. 2006: Symmetric Multi- 1996: Soft Updates Processing In Ganger and Patt , an In the late 1990s, the FreeBSD alternative approach called soft Project began the long hard task of updates was proposed and converting their kernel to support evaluated in the context of a symmetric multi-processing. research prototype. Following a  WHAT, A REAL UNIX®? By 1990, the CSRG’s funding was The BSD operating systems are running out, and it faced not clones, but open-source closure. Some members of the derivatives of AT&T’s Research group decided to release the UNIX® operating system, which BSD code, which was Open is also the ancestor of the Source, without the AT&T modern UNIX® System V. them proprietary code. IT happened Berkeley Software Distribution or with the Networking Tape 2, BSD. usually known as Net/2. Net/2 was not a complete operating in 1976, the Computer Sciences system: about 20% of the kernel Research Group (CSRG) of the code was missing. University of California in Berkeley, CA, started releasing William F. Jolitz, wrote the tapes of their software, calling remaining code and released in early 1992 as 386BSD. another Initial BSD releases consisted group of ex-CSRG members mainly of user programs, but formed a commercial company that changed dramatically called Berkeley Software Design when the CSRG landed a Inc. and released a beta version contract with the Defense of an OS called BSD/386, which Advanced Research Projects was based on the same sources. Agency (DARPA) to upgrade The name of the operating the communications protocols system was later changed to on their network, ARPANET. BSD/OS. Sun Microsystems licensed WHY IS BSD NOT BETTER UNIX® and implemented a KNOWN? version of 4.2BSD, which they 1. The BSD developers are often called SunOS. When AT&T more interested in polishing their themselves were allowed to sell code than marketing it. UNIX® commercially, they 2. Much of Linux’s popularity is due started with a somewhat bare- to factors external to the Linux bones implementation called projects, such as the press, and System III, to be quickly followed to companies formed to provide by System V. The System V code Linux services. Until recently, the base did not include open-source BSDs had no such networking, so all proponents. implementations included 3. In 1992, AT&T sued BSDI, the additional software from the vendor of BSD/386, alleging that BSD, including the TCP/IP the product contained AT&T software, but also utilities such as copyrighted code. the csh shell and the vi editor. Collectively, these WHAT VERSIONS OF BSD ARE enhancements were known as AVAILABLE? the Berkeley Extensions FreeBSD aims for high performance and ease of use  by end users, and is a favourite In particular, any derivative work of of web content providers. a product released under the GPL must also be supplied with source NetBSD aims for maximum code if requested. portability: "of course it runs NetBSD". It runs on machines By contrast, the BSD license is less from palmtops to large servers, restrictive: binary-only distributions and has even been used on are allowed. This is particularly NASA space missions. attractive for embedded applications. OpenBSD aims for security and code purity: it uses a WHO SHOULD USE BSD, WHO combination of the open-source SHOULD USE LINUX? concept and rigorous code Choosing between the two is a reviews to create a system difficult one. Here are some which is demonstrably correct. guidelines: "If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it": If DragonFlyBSD aims for high you already use an open- performance and scalability source operating system, and under everything from a single- you are happy with it, there is node UP system to a massively probably no good reason to clustered system. change. There are also two additional BSD BSD systems, in particular UNIX® operating syst