Philosophy PDF

***P h i l o s o p h y*** **1 \| FREEDOM** You always have a reason for doing what you do. Some people do what they do not because they want to do them, but because they feel that they have to do it. Practical human actions are always derived from certain motives. Humans have the capacity to pl...

***P h i l o s o p h y*** **1 \| FREEDOM** You always have a reason for doing what you do. Some people do what they do not because they want to do them, but because they feel that they have to do it. Practical human actions are always derived from certain motives. Humans have the capacity to plot the trajectory of our lives. Your freedom is a direct corollary of your awareness of both your past decision and future plans. Freedom is always exercised in a particular context. Autonomy is equivalent to freedom. We feel free when we face situations that call for our decision. Freedom is dynamic. **FREEDOM** Freedom in a social and political context means the freedom of an individual from oppression, compulsion, or coercion from other persons, an authority figure, or from society itself. **[Freedom entails the recognition of certain rights and entitlement:]** **NATURAL RIGHTS** Innate in the person. **LEGAL RIGHTS** Based on society\'s customs and laws. **[Human freedom is expressed in two ways:]** **FREE WILL** Which is the capacity to choose from alternative courses of action or decision. **FREE ACTION** The freedom to perform an action without any obstacles or hindrances. **ARGUMENTS ABOUT FREEDOM** **THE POWER OF VOLITION (ARISTOTLE)** Reason can legislate, but only through will can its legislation be translated into action. If there were no intellect, there would be no will. The will of humanity is an instrument of free choice. **[This is borne out by:]** 1. 2. 3. 4. Moral acts, which are always particular acts, are in our power and we are responsible for them. Character or habit is no excuse for immoral conduct. A human being is rational. **LOVE IS FREEDOM (ST. THOMAS AQUINAS)** Human beings as a moral agent. Whether we choose to be good or evil becomes our responsibility. A human being, therefore, has a supernatural, transcendental destiny. The power of change is achieved through cooperation with God. **[Fourfold classification of law:]** 1. 2. 3. 4. St. Thomas emphasizes the freedom of humanity but chooses love in governing humanity\'s life. Since God is Love, then Love is the guiding principle of humanity toward his self-perception and happiness--- his ultimate destiny. **INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM (JEAN PAUL SARTRE)** Existentialism The human person is the desire to be God. To exist as a being which has its sufficient ground in itself (en sui causa) -- "A being \[that is\] the cause of itself." **[Sartre\'s principle: Existence precedes:]** 1. 2. 3. 4. Existence precedes essence. To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free to choose, and be responsible for one's life. When we are exercising freedom in making choices, we are taking control and assuming full responsibility for the choices that we are making. There is one important caveat: you are free but this freedom is not absolute. **JOHN MOTHERSHEAD** Author of the book entitled Ethics: Modern Conception of the Principle of Right (1955). **[There are two necessary conditions for morality to occur:]** 1. 2. You are not free to be unfree. In making moral decisions and choices, it is within the capacity of the human person as an active and free moral agent to exercise his freedom of choice as an obligation to himself. **2 \| INTERSUBJECTIVITY** Recognizing others. **RELATING TO OTHERS** The idea of a self is a product of our relationship with others. Prior to the notion of the self, the other comes first. **Modes of Relating to Others** --- **Martin Burber** Jewish existentialist philosopher. In his work I and Thou (Ich and Du) (1923), he conceives the human person in his/her wholeness, totality, concrete existence, and relatedness to the world. Buber claims that the I can only realize itself in the face of the other. **[Modes of relating to others:]** 1. 2. 3. **DIALOGUE** The I-I relation is a speech. The I-It relationship does not also bear the character of a dialogue. For Buber, it is only through the I-Thou relationships that dialogues take place. In a dialogue, the I recognizes the other as a distinct person-as Thou. When Buber speaks about dialogue, he stresses the importance of silence, listening, and of sensitivity. Dialogical relations are expressed in ways more than the use of words: the exchange of glances, the appropriate pauses, the stroking of hair, the powerful silence, etc. In the I-Thou relationship, the other is not considered according to our thoughts. For Buber, the I-Thou relationship is the experience of being in communion with the other through dialogue. We have to realize that the I-Thou relationship is a privileged type of relationship. Having a dialogical relationship with someone does not mean that we have to accept everything that the other claims, or vice-versa. **EMPATHY** We do have access to the consciousness of the other through our own consciousness. In empathy, we still recognize the other as an other, but we try to understand the other by assuming that we are partly the same as we share similar bodily responses to particular experiences. Empathy allows us to recognize the other, and recognize what the other might have been going through. It can also be a very useful device for making decisions, especially if we are to execute actions that will involve other subjects. This simple exercise of an imaginative transfer before an act can make a very big difference in how we treat others, and eventually in how we establish relationships with others. **RESPONSIBILITY (EMMANUEL LEVINAS)** As we encounter the other face-to-face, we do not feel at ease with simply knowing and feeling what the other person is experiencing. We are driven to act and do something for the other. French Philosopher Emmanuel Levinas argues that the face of the other compels us to respond to its needs. We are being called to be responsible in the face of the other because we substitute ourselves for the other. Substitution is to bear the weight of what the other is experiencing and find comfort in addressing the weaknesses and difficulties of the other. Our responsibility is simply for the other, and if the other does not respond to us, then that is no longer our responsibility. Levinas claims that the source of our responsibility to the other is not based on moral rules, but simply on the encounter with the face of the other; and we cannot not respond to the face. **3 \| INTERSUBJECTIVITY (PART 2)** **INTERSUBJECTIVITY** Developed by the philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859--1938). Interaction between the self and the other is related to the philosophical concept. It is the shared awareness and understanding among persons. **SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS (GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL) (1770-1831)** We achieve self-consciousness on different levels as we encounter the many things present in our world Hegel claims it is through the experience of lack that we desire something, and this desire brings our consciousness back to ourselves. Human beings are the only ones capable of attaining full self-consciousness. A desire that is uniquely human-the desire to be desired. The desire to be desired is the human desire to be recognized as a conscious subject. For Hegel, it is only through being recognized by other self-conscious subjects that we can attain full self-consciousness. Self-consciousness is a product of intersubjective relations which involves mutual recognition among the conscious subjects. One must struggle for self-recognition and it is in this struggle that one fights for his life and/or freedom. **MASTER AND SLAVE** **[Hegel looks at the relationship between the two sides of the struggle for self-recognition:]** 1. 2. **[Two important aspects in their relationship:]** 1. 2. In considering the newer forms of master-slave relationships, we shall look for domination, subjugation, freedom, and the restriction of freedom in relationships. **[True Recognition: Against Domination and Possession]** 1. 2. 3. The true condition of the master-slave relationship as presented by Hegel reminds us how to treat other human persons to achieve true and full self-consciousness-that is, as human persons, and not as objects and/or slaves. **4 \| THE HUMAN PERSON IN SOCIETY** **THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE HUMAN PERSON** "Man by nature is a political animal" - Aristotle Society allows individual members to flourish and live a good life. Society also allows human persons to be moral and practice human virtue. The human person as an embodied subject is born in a pre-existing social condition. Being part of a society, the human person is inevitably shaped and influenced by his social conditions. The different types of societies are a result of the continuous evolution of man brought about by several factors (information, and technology). **TYPES OF SOCIETIES IN THE CHRONOLOGY OF HUMAN SOCIETIES** **PRE-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES** Having limited forms of production, with a limited division of labor and social stratification. Interaction is limited to the members of the same social group. The pre-industrial societies consist of the following: hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, and agrarian. **[Pre-Industrial Societies:]** 1. 2. 3. 4. **INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES** Industrial society\'s source of energy came from sources like coal, petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. The advent of the steam engine. Other innovations followed-the establishment of railroads, steam ships replaced sail ships, the mass production of steel, the production of automobiles, and the establishment of electrical, telephone, and petroleum industries. The increasing mechanization in farming boosted the efficiency of production and decreased the need for human workers. Factories became the central working place of most people. Wealth and power were controlled by fewer people-the capitalists, while the masses belonged to the working class. Technology swiftly evolved in industrial societies resulting in even more efficiency in production. **POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES** Made popular by the American Sociologist Daniel Bell. In the post-industrial society, knowledge is the capital. Innovations through knowledge then is the key to success, and not just mere production. **CONSUMER SOCIETY** **[The creation of a consumer society:]** 1. 2. 3. **HENRY FORD** Henry Ford, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, provides workers with better working conditions and wages. The technique of Ford is now known as the manufacturing technique or system of Fordism. Formalization of the consumer culture; workers were turned into consumers. **SIGN CONSUMPTION AND THE SOCIETY OF THE SPECTACLE** Sign Consumption is when people are no longer consuming commodities but only the signs of these commodities. Sign value functions as a signifier of status, culture, identity, and lifestyle. Consuming a particular commodity then creates a feeling of belongingness to the established culture and identity of the sign. In the consumer society, almost all manufacturers will try to create an illusory need for their products. **DEBORD** Debord argued in his book, The Society of the Spectacle, that our society has been reduced to sign or image relations. Debord claims, "The spectacle is not a collection of images, but a social relation among people, mediated by images." It is the possession of certain goods with signs that will enable the consumer to be seen and recognized in the consumer society. To successfully incorporate the seeming urgency of a commodity, the advertisers need to use effective spectacles (celebrities). **[Sign consumption in society of the spectacle has various and branching effects on the human person and on his relationship with other persons:]** 1. 2. 3. 4. **THROW-AWAY SOCIETY** Most of the things that we have today have the characteristic of disposability. **[Three aspects that evidently manifest the throwaway culture in our society:]** 1. 2. 3. Sometimes the reasons why we throw away these products have to do with the excess of reserve products available. However, most of the reasons why we throw-away certain products have to do with the products themselves. The longevity of a product does not necessarily refer to the functionality of the product. Planned obsolescence - Products must be declared obsolete within a certain period of time to give way to better versions. Our being-in the-world with things is being shaped by the throw-away mindset, and everything becomes disposable. The throwaway society creates an acquire- and-throw-acquire-and-throw cycle. Excessive consumption practices result in an increase in our garbage and waste disposal, which poses an environmental threat. **TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY** The Internet has created a new society that is not based on geography, culture, or religion; but based solely on accessibility to it. Chat rooms and message boards, Social networking, and Virtual worlds. **CHAT ROOMS AND MESSAGE BOARDS** Message boards and chat rooms have successfully shattered the barriers of personal space. **SOCIAL NETWORKING** A very popular virtual society. **[People are given the chance to achieve the following:]** 1. 2. 3. **Virtual Worlds** Most virtual worlds are in the context of games where one can choose an avatar, an online representation of the self. Most people who participate and live in this world, spend a lot of their waking hours living in this world. **[Reasons why people are so hooked on virtual realities:]** 1. 2. 3. **THE DISEMBODIED SOCIETY** **The Disembodied Subject** People are slowly putting aside their bodies in relation to others because the technological society offers an alternative that apparently resolves the limitations of an embodied subject. The different gadgets that are produced today support disembodied human relations. Interacting with actual embodied subjects, face-to-face is becoming more and more difficult today. The practice of selfies is another move toward disembodied human relations. Gave people the idea that they do not need others to take their photos. The virtual society and the technological devices today are reshaping the human person and human interactions and relationships. Human relations seem to start losing an important element in living: commitment. In the virtual world, one\'s anonymity lessens, if not completely removes, risks. **5 \| THE HUMAN PERSON AND DEATH** **DEATH** **LEGAL-MEDICAL DEFINITION** Death is redefined from its traditional cardio-pulmonary bases to a neurological (brain) based definition. A patient who is breathing and whose heart is functioning through medical machines may no longer have any brain activity, which according to the new definition, is already dead. **[In the Philippines, the legal definition is found in Section 2, paragraph (j) of the Organ Donation Act of 1991 or Republic Act 7170. Here, death is defined as follows:]** The irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or the irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem. A person shall be medically and legally dead if either: 1. 2. **RELIGIOUS DEFINITION** This religious meaning of death, which is considered widespread among religions, is based on the concept of an afterlife. Death is usually defined as a transition from an earthly life to the life of the soul. One central belief is that the soul will be directed to a place proportionate to its moral status during earthly life (Abrahamic Religions). Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell. Another central belief about what happens to the soul after death is that it undergoes rebirth, the main sort of which is the reincarnation. The soul will take another form proportionate to one\'s moral status prior to death. The afterlife is ultimately based on rewards and punishments. A person will go to heaven or reincarnate with a better status if one does well; one will go to hell or reincarnate with a lower status if one does badly. **EXISTENTIALIST DEFINITION** Death, as defined by the existentialist, is the transition from being to non-being. "To be-to exist" means to have possibilities; while "not to be-not to exist" means to lose all the possibilities. The afterlife is not a concern for an existentialist, because its existence is not concrete. The challenge of the existentialist is to face the real possibility of non-being-the possibility that when we die, everything is over, that is, that we simply cease to be; that we are no longer. **ETHICS OF KILLING** What killing does to us, which may be the main reason it is considered wrong, is the imposition of a premature death; because the person who is killed and obtains a premature death has been deprived of a future. Killing is considered one of the worst crimes because being killed with still a valued future robs the person of his entire future goods, as opposed to being beaten or robbed. **DEATH AS AN EXISTENTIAL ISSUE** **EXISTENTIALISM** There are no essences in some world of ideas apart from what is actually existing. **OTHERWORLD** Friedrich Nietzsche complains about the otherworld: "But that world is well concealed from the humans-that dehumanized inhuman world which is a heavenly nothing." Nietzsche claims that the concept of an afterlife in the otherworld serves to comfort those who are weak and suffering in this world. Soren Kierkegaard, disapproved of the reduction of matters of faith into matters of reason. A thing that can be made certain is no longer something which belongs to faith, but to reason. **ANXIETY** Paul Tillich, claims that: "Anxiety is the existential awareness of non-being." Martin Heidegger on the other hand claims that: "Being-toward-death is essentially anxiety." As Heidegger puts it: "As soon as we come to be, it is already possible for us not to be." **[There are two ways of facing the anxiety brought about by death:]** 1. 2. We consider death only as the death of someone. **MEANING OF LIFE IN DEATH** The way to live is to live in this world. And for Nietzsche, whoever lived a full life-quality of life, not quantity-will have a victorious death. Kierkegaard is more concerned about how people treat the elements in the otherworld as if everything is a matter of knowing. Act on those plans and dreams now. Death reminds us to live. It invites us to see the value of what we have and of what we are. **FIVE STAGES OF GRIEF** The coping reactions during this particular time of life are formed by previous experiences with death, as well as by cultural attitudes and beliefs. Kubler-Ross (1969) proposes five stages that many dying patients pass through from the time they first become conscious of the fatal diagnosis to their actual death. **DENIAL** The patient may appear dazed at first and may then refuse to believe the diagnosis or deny that anything is wrong. **ANGER** Patient becomes frustrated, irritable and angry that they are sick. A common response is, "Why me?" They may become angry at God, their fate, a friend, or a family member. **BARGAINING** The patient may attempt to negotiate with physicians, friends or even God, that in return for a cure, the person will fulfill one or many promises. **DEPRESSION** Signs of depression withdrawal, psychomotor retardation, sleep disturbances, hopelessness and possibly suicidal ideation. The depression may be a reaction to the effects of the illness on his/her life or it may be in anticipation of the approaching death. **ACCEPTANCE** The patient realizes that death is inevitable and accepts the universality of the experience. Under ideal circumstances, the patient is courageous and is able to talk about his/her death as he/she faces the unknown.