Introduction to World Religions Textbook PDF

INTRODUCTION TO World Religions &Belief Systems TEXTBOOK Jerome A. Ong Mary Dorothy dL. Jose Author/Editor Department of Education Republic of the Philippines Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems ISBN 978-971-07-3913-4...

INTRODUCTION TO World Religions &Belief Systems TEXTBOOK Jerome A. Ong Mary Dorothy dL. Jose Author/Editor Department of Education Republic of the Philippines Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems ISBN 978-971-07-3913-4 Copyright © 2016 of Vibal Group, Inc. and Jerome A. Ong and Mary Dorothy dL. Jose. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher and author. Published by Vibal Group, Inc. with main office at 1253 Gregorio Araneta Avenue, Quezon City. Regional Offices: 0290 Nivel Hills, Lahug, Cebu City and Kalamansi St. cor. 1st Avenue, Juna Subdivision, Matina, Davao City Editor: Mary Dorothy dL. Jose Reviewers: Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe and Maria Chris B. Ramoya Printed in the Philippines by: ii Preface As Asians, we should be proud of the fact that the world’s greatest religions originated from Asia. From the arid western frontier began Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the vast Indian subcontinent came Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism, and Mahayana Buddhism from South Asia. In the east, originated Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism. The study of world religions is a challenging and worthwhile endeavour. With this in mind, we offer you the textbook Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems to help you comprehensively learn not only about the fundamental teachings and ritualistic practices, but also the historical background, geographical context, and cultural milieu of these profound Asian religions. The title of the book clearly suggests that religion and belief system are two different concepts: ‘belief system’ is also known as worldview or a particular way of ordering the realities of one’s world, while ‘religion’ is the pursuit of transformation guided by a sacred belief system. This textbook, as our contribution to the insightful study of religion, is based on the objectives and competencies of the K-12 Basic Education Program. We have divided the book into four parts. The first part will discuss the key concepts in religion and belief systems which serve as framework in the study of religions; the geographical and cultural contexts of these religions as they originated; and the effects of religion on followers and adherents. The second part will explore the nature of the Abrahamic religions from West Asia (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). The third part will examine the features of the Dharmic religions from South Asia (Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism, and Mahayana Buddhism). The fourth part will look into the attributes of the Daoic religions from East Asia (Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism). Each chapter ends with a comparative analysis of these religions with focus on their origin, purpose, morality, destiny, and views on women. The final lesson attempts to determine the religious landscape of the 21st century by way of assessing the uniqueness of each world religion and its impact on humanity. Apart from understanding key concepts in religion, it is also imperative to learn the historical and geographical circumstances of world religions in order to appreciate their distinctive characteristics. This endeavor aims to promote mutual understanding among adherents of various belief systems. At the end of the semester, students are expected not only to understand world religions, but more importantly, to demonstrate an appreciation and respect for their own faith and that of others. Aside from the objective of deepening your understanding of world religions and developing appreciation of various belief systems, this book also aims to cultivate your critical thinking skills through challenging activities based on the learner-centered approach. This textbook comes with a teacher’s manual and additional resource materials to help teachers in facilitating a more effective study of world religions. The Authors iii  Walkthrough CHAPTER OPENER CHAPTER TWO This gives an overview of the ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS lessons that will be discussed which F rom the frontiers of West Asia developed the Abrahamic religions will give you an idea on what to of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, known as the first monotheistic religions of the world. They are called Abrahamic religions because they expect in the chapter. all trace their origins to the great patriarch Abraham and his descendants. Followers of these religions, namely the Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe that Abraham and his family played a significant role in the begin- nings of their respective faiths. Since these religions came from the same region, it is not surprising that they share common beliefs, foremost of which is the belief that they share common roots to the patriarch Abraham. Aside from this, they also share certain similarities such as belief in one God. They also believe in heaven and hell; in prophets as instruments of God in propa- gating His words to the people; in angels as messengers of God to humanity; LESSON and in judgment day, among others. As of today, Christianity TWO as is considered Origin of World Religions the most popular religion in the world today based on the number of adher- ents, followed by Islam. Indeed, these Abrahamic religions have largely influ- enced the world today. S ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING: imilar to living organisms, religions are born in history and they gradually Religions have their stories develop into living traditions and affect the lives of their followers. Belief of origin and are universal in systems originate in certain localities within the context of culture and nature. Geography and culture have an even geography. The picture below depicts the symbols of various organized effect on the establishment and religion as they continue to influence the lives of their devotees all over 48 World Religions in Focus development of religions. the world. From their rudimentary form, religions continually evolved into a ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS complicated system replete with rites and practices that made recruitment How can we compare the of members necessary. Quite unfortunately, other religions also faced death LESSON OPENER nature of religions based on as in the case of Zoroastrianism that once flourished in South Asia but is their historical foundation, geographical setting, and now only confined in Iran, India, and Central Asia. They may also give impetus to establish new movements within religious groups, such as in the This gives an overview of the topics cultural milieu? How is religion affected by geography and culture? case of Buddhism that may be viewed as a reaction to the overly ritualistic to be discussed in the lesson. beliefs and the exclusivity in nature of Hinduism. They may also contribute to the foundation of other religions, such as those borrowed themes of Christianity from Judaism, and of Islam from both Christianity and Judaism (Brasswell 1994). This lesson will deal with the origin of religions along ESSENTIAL with the geographical context and cultural milieu that have impacted the establishment of world religions and belief system. UNDERSTANDING This serves as the focus of what the lesson is all about; this contains the question which you need to think about with regards to the topic MOTIVATIONAL ACTIVITY Religiously speaking, list down ten (10) things that you believe in by completing the following being discussed. statements. What have observed in your own set of belief system? 1. I believe in/that 2. I believe in/that ESSENTIAL 3. I believe in/that 4. I believe in/that 5. I believe in/that QUESTIONS 6. I believe in/that 7. I believe in/that 8. I believe in/that This serves as the focus of what 9. I believe in/that 10. I believe in/that will be studied in the lesson; the summary or important questions CONCEpT MAp which you need to reflect on about 14 World Religions in Focus a particular lesson. RELIGION MOTIVATIONAL Atheistic Agnostic Monistic Monotheistic Polytheistic ACTIVITY Engaging activity that will catch your DEVELOpING BELIEFS AND WORLDVIEW Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one interest in the lesson. another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which is a collec- tion of beliefs about life and the universe being held by people (The Free Dictionary 2014). For a certain individual, social environment and upbringing are critical in the development of a religious life. All these factors have an CONCEPT MAP effect on how people organize their beliefs and ideas while eventually creating a comprehensive narrative through which they look at the world and inter- This gives you an idea of the topic relate with it. Belief in god or gods is found in almost all religions. There is a good and subtopics that will be discussed reason to presuppose that religion had existed during the prehistoric times and that there seems to be universality in religion in the modern period. in the lesson; this serves as your Human life on earth may have produced hundreds of religions and belief systems. There could be more unknown than known religions in the world guide in studying the lesson. since recorded history covered only several thousand years of humankind’s 4 World Religions in Focus iv 22 – Shemini Atzeret 23 – Simchat Torah Kislev (November or December) 25 – Hanukkah begins up to the second of Tebet (December or January) Adar (February or March) WEBLINK 14 – Purim Visit the weblink for additional Source: George W. Braswell, Jr., Understanding World Religions, p. 89. information and activity on the Halakha Because Judaism is also a comprehensive way of life, Jewish people follow WeblINK: content of the lesson. Quickly scan the 613 mitzvot at a set of rules and practices that govern their everyday living. Collectively http://www.jewfaq.org/613.htm called halakha that translates as “the path that one walks,” these are Jewish and have a debate in class between religious laws derived from the “Written Torah” and “Oral Torah” including the pros and cons of having a large GUIDE QUESTION number of religious laws. the 613 mitzvot. Jewish laws contain directions on how to revere God, and treat other people and animals. Halakha instructs Jew what to do as they wake up in the morning, what foods to eat, what clothes to wear, who to GuIDe QuesTIoN: marry, and how to observe Sabbath and holy days. When properly observed, How do the basic tenets of Judaism underpin the importance of actions While reading the lesson, you can halakha increases one’s spirituality as even mundane acts becomes essential to his or her existence. for the Jewish people? use the guide questions for you to Synagogues get the most significant ideas you Synagogues are Jewish temples of worship, instruction, and community TRIVIa: fellowship that contain separate rooms designed for specific activities, such as Did you know that the “Ark of the Covenant” is a sacred relic of should learn from the lesson praying and studying. In Orthodox Judaism, men and women sit separately Judaism said to have originated at the synagogues; in Reform Judaism, they sit altogether in temples. from the time of the Exodus? It is a coffin-like, ornate, gilded case Similar to a Christian church, synagogues have seats facing an elevated that may have been the portable platform with one or two lecterns or chair. The central feature at the platform throne of Yahweh during the TRIVIA time of Moses. It also housed (bimah or tebah) and the holiest spot inside a synagogue is the ark where the the stone tablets of the “Ten Torah scrolls are kept. A reminiscent of the original “Ark of the Covenant,” Commandments.” Learn more an ark inside a temple is normally placed in a manner that when people face about the ark by visiting http:// the ark, they are facing in the direction of Jerusalem. An ornate curtain science.nationalgeographic.com/ science/archaeology/ark-covenant/ Concepts or ideas related to (parochet) veils the ark while a lamp or lantern (ner tamid) burns before and share your insights about its it symbolizing the constantly lit six-branched lampstand (menorah) in the provenance and historicity. the topic which will enrich your Temple of Jerusalem (Braswell 1994). While a Jewish layman may lead a prayer service during Sabbath if there knowledge. are ten adult males present (minyan), the religious leader is oftentimes a trained rabbi. He delivers sermon and interprets the Torah. The rabbi serves as a pastor, administrator, and counselor. The Temple Summary Around 1003 B.C.E., David was able to conquer Jerusalem and made it his ReligionDavidis considered universal to and that it can be found in all known contemporary societies. SUMMARY capital. Bringing with him the “Ark of the Covenant,” intended The build a temple to become the first and fixed place prophet and of worship for patriarch the Jews.Abraham is considered the common origin of three monothe- However, God told David that it would be one of hisisticsons religions, whonamely, Judaism, will have theChristianity, and Islam. privilege of accomplishing this task. Religion is an essential part of Indian tradition as four main religions originated here, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. This serves as the synthesis of the Both Confucius and Laozi Understanding were followers of of the Nature the Dao. The Religion 59 Confucian Dao principally concerns human affairs while the Daoist Dao means the way the universe works. topics discussed in the lesson. West Asia is home of three great religions, namely, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Heat and water are major features of India’s ecological setting. As a result, deities of sun, fire, and water are venerated in India. Chinese culture practically influenced all other nations at its outskirts, including Japan and CRITICAL THINKING Korea. Monotheism or the belief in one god is an ancient idea that predated the establishment of This refers to the questions at Abrahamic religions. The concept of dharma is integral in religions that emerged in India, most especially Hinduism the end of the lesson which will and Buddhism. Chinese belief system arrived in Japan and influenced the local culture and the indigenous help you reflect on what you have polytheistic religion Shinto. learned in the lesson. Critical Thinking: 1. How important is the role of Abraham in the development of monotheistic religions? 2. In what ways are Confucianism and Taoism more of a social philosophy rather than organized religions? ASSESSMENT 3. How did geography affect religious events and development in West Asia, in the Indian subcontinent, and in China? This consists of traditional and 4. What are the major points of difference between dharmic religions and Abrahamic religions? 5. Why are natural forces and environment integral in the Shinto religion? authentic assessments which will help you evaluate what you have Assessment learned in the lesson. A. Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blanks provided. Column A 1. Type of Buddhism that developed in Japan C. Write a two-page essay on the topic “Religion: What Does It Mean to Me?” Make sure to 2. The Hindu god of water and celestial oceans include in your essay the different values your religion may have instilled in you and the 3. Prehistoric species of humans various guiding principles that you adhere in your life while mindful of your religion. You will 4. Term for the teachings of the Buddha be graded based on the rubric below: 5. Forwarded the idea of ‘three persons, one substance’ 6. A name given by the Hebrews to their god RubRIC FoR essaY 7. Considered as the “Seal of the Prophets” CRITeRIa DesCRIPTIoN PoINTs PoINTs obTaINeD 8. A pilgrimage site along the river Ganga Content The content was well-thought of; guide 7 questions were thoroughly answered Origin of Worl Religions 27 Organization The paper was well-written with ideas easily 7 conveyed to readers. Analysis Analysis was clear and concise based on the 6 data presented. Total: 20 On to the Next Lesson ON TO THE You have learned in this opening lesson the nature of religion and other concepts related to belief systems.You have familiarized yourself with the different theories on the origin of religions as humans continued their endless search to find meanings and explanations in their everyday NEXT LESSON existence relative to the world around them. The next lesson will take you into the historical, geographical, and cultural contexts of various world religions of today. This summarizes what you have studied in the lesson and connects Sources it to the next lesson for a smooth BOOKS Auboyer, Jeannine. Daily Life in Ancient India (From 200 BC to 700 AD). London: Phoenix Press, 2002. transition from one lesson Batchelor, Martin. Zen. London: Thorsons, 2001. Baxter, Craig et. al. Government and Politics in South Asia (Fourth Edition). Colorado: Westview Press, 1998. to the next. Bowker, John. World Religions. New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1997 Brown, David A. A Guide to Religions (TEF Study Guide 12): Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1987. Bruteau, Beatrice. What We Can Learn from the East. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1995. Clasper, Paul. Eastern Paths and the Christian Way. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992. Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). Eastern Religions. London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2005. De Bary, William Theodore. East Asian Civilizations: A Dialogue in Five Stages. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. Dhammananda, K. Sri. Why Worry? How to Live Without Fear & Worry. Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1996. Dutt, R. C. Ramayana: Epic of Ram, Prince of India. New Delhi: Rupa.Co, 2001. Ember, Carol R. & Melvin Ember. Anthropology (Eight Edition). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1996. 12 World Religions in Focus v  Contents CHAPTER I WORLD RELIGIONS IN FOCUS 2 Lesson 1: Understanding the Nature of Religion 3 Lesson 2: Origin of World Religions 14 Lesson 3: Positive and Negative Effects of Religion 32 CHAPTER II ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS 46 Lesson 4: Judaism 47 Lesson 5: Christianity 68 Lesson 6: Islam 84 Lesson 7: Comparative Analysis of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam 104 CHAPTER III DHARMIC RELIGIONS 118 Lesson 8: Hinduism 119 Lesson 9: Theravada Buddhism 134 Lesson 10: Mahayana Buddhism 150 Lesson 11: Comparative Analysis of Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism, and Mahayana Buddhism 167 CHAPTER IV DAOIC RELIGIONS 178 Lesson 12: Confucianism 179 Lesson 13: Daoism 198 Lesson 14: Shintoism 212 Lesson 15: Comparative Analysis of Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism 232 CHAPTER V RELIGION IN THE 21ST CENTURY 244 GLOSSARY INDEX BIBLIOGRAPHY PHOTO CREDITS vi INTRODUCTION TO World Religions &Belief Systems TEXTBOOK  CHAPTER ONE WORLD RELIGIONS IN FOCUS W hy is there a need to study religion? Religion has been in existence since the earliest time of humankind. Wherever humankind inhabits, religion too exists. Presently, we are all witness as to how religion continues to play crucial roles in world politics in the twenty-first century as can be seen from the various political conflicts that have their roots in religious differences. This particular chapter will introduce you to various concepts related to religion, expound on the origin of religion, and evaluate the many roles played by religion in people’s everyday lives. In all parts of the world, religious ideas have helped inflame animosity and discord that shape conflicts and give rise to oppression and tyranny. Conversely, religious traditions have also created a strong backbone that helped shape the importance of peace, justice, equality, toleration, and brotherhood. 2 World Religions in Focus LESSON ONE Understanding the Nature of Religion W hat does it mean to be religious and spiritual? Why is religion ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING linked to humankind’s quest to search for the real meaning of life 1. Religion is the pursuit of and death? As we all know, when one prays, he or she actively transformation guided by a sacred belief system. seeks an affinity to divine beings or supernatural entities that are beyond 2. Spirituality reflects one’s the purely natural world. The picture below is a clear depiction of an act integrative view of life while affecting the human soul. of prayer. Majority of world religions follow a set of prayers in the form of chants, mantras, or creed. Whether you pray or not, you may have witnessed ESSENTIAL QUESTION the influential roles being played by religions all over the world. 1. How do religions come about? Understanding the nature of religion enlightens learners about the common 2. How does religion differ from spirituality? grounds that bind believers into examining the questions of life and death and why or how persons yearn for spiritual inspiration. Recognizing the inherent characteristics of religion provides the opportunity to deeply grasp the many beliefs and practices that mold humankind's spiritual needs. Religion is an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god or a group of gods (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014). Understanding the Nature of Religion 3  MOTIVATIONAL ACTIVITY In the context of religion, list down 10 things that you believe in by completing the following statements. What have you observed in your own belief system? 1. I believe in/that 2. I believe in/that 3. I believe in/that 4. I believe in/that 5. I believe in/that 6. I believe in/that 7. I believe in/that 8. I believe in/that 9. I believe in/that 10. I believe in/that CONCEPT MAP RELIGION Monistic Monotheistic Polytheistic Agnostic Atheistic UNDERSTANDING BELIEFS AND WORLDVIEWS Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which is a collection of beliefs about life and the universe being held by people (The Free Dictionary 2014). For a certain individual, social environment and upbringing are critical in the development of a religious life. All these factors have an effect on how people organize their beliefs and ideas while eventually creating a comprehensive narrative through which they look at the world and interrelate with it. Belief in god or gods is found in almost all religions. There is a good reason to presuppose that religion had existed during prehistoric times and this has continued to the modern day. Human life may have produced hundreds of religions and belief systems. There could be more unknown than known religions in the world since recorded history covers only several thousand years of human existence. 4 World Religions in Focus  Likewise, many may have lived and died within just a short period of time. Table 1.1 enumerates the different kinds of belief systems or worldviews. Kinds Description Monism there is no real distinction between god and the universe Polytheism the belief and worship of many gods Monotheism the doctrine or belief in one supreme god Atheism disbelief in or denial of the existence of a personal god TABLE 1.1 Agnosticism god cannot be known Kinds of Belief System Derived from http://www.newadvent.org/ Theism, often used as a synonym to monotheism, is defined as “a belief in WEBLINK Try visiting the link http://www.bbc. the existence of one god viewed as the creative source of the human race and co.uk/religion/0/22337834 and read the world who transcends yet is immanent in the world” (Merriam-Webster the article entitled “Perspectives: Dictionary 2014). Monotheistic religions claim that there is only one God Mocking faith – how far can you go?.” What is your own personal who could have designed and created the universe or may have directed all take on the matter at hand? Share events that led to the creation of everything. There is one supreme God who your insights in class. is both personal and moral, and who seeks a total and unqualified response from humans (Hick 1990). Modern-day examples of monotheistic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. On the other hand, polytheistic GUIDE QUESTION How is religion viewed by various religions that are common among early people recognize many principal gods people in relation to their outlook among whom no one is supreme. These include the ancient religions of Egypt, on God? Greece, and Rome wherein people worship a multitude of personal gods. Meanwhile, monism asserts that there is no genuine distinction between God and the universe. Two implications arise from this belief. Firstly, it contends that God is dwelling in the universe as part of it. Secondly, the universe does not exist at all as a reality but only as a manifestation of God. Furthermore, while atheists deny the existence of God, agnostics deny the possibility for man to acquire knowledge of the existence of God. DEFINITION AND NATURE OF RELIGION Religion may be defined as “an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god or a group of gods” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014). The Latin word religio refers to “something done with overanxious or scrupulous attention to detail” (Bowker 1997). This term may have probably been derived from the Latin verb religare which means “to tie together, to bind fast.” In its original sense, the word refers to expression of proper piety, that is, binding to god (Grassie 2010). Quite later, religion was used to designate formal belief systems and tenets. The term was eventually applied to what we now call as religion because of the manner in which people performed rituals during those days. While religion may be universal in all stages of human history, it does not follow that all individuals are religious or even religious to some degree (Parrinder 1971). Understanding the Nature of Religion 5  Table 1.2 below summarizes the various definitions forwarded by several social scientists on the nature of religion. Name of Social Background View on Religion Scientist Edward Burnett Taylor English anthropologist; founding figure of the belief in spiritual beings (1832-1917) the science of social anthropology James George Frazer Scottish social anthropologist; one a propitiation or conciliation of powers (1854-1941) of the founding figures of modern superior to man which are believed to anthropology control and direct the course of nature and of human life Bronislaw Kasper an eminent 20th-century Polish a body of self-contained acts being Malinowski anthropologist themselves the fulfilment of their purpose; (1884-1942) an affair of all, in which everyone takes an active and equivalent part TABLE 1.2 David Ëmile Durkheim French sociologist; father of sociology a unified system of beliefs and practices Nature of Religion (1858-1917) relative to sacred things Source: Joy Hendry, Other People’s Worlds: An Introduction to Cultural and Social Anthropology, pp. 116-199. belief in a deity’s relationship with the world places and people believed to be holy belief in a deity and sacred RELIGION ways to worship rules followed as a a deity result of beliefs FIGURE 1 Common Characteristics Among Religions Derived from David A. Brown, A Guide to Religions, p. 8. Figure 1 illustrates the different characteristics that are common to most major religions. Can you give some concrete examples? 6 World Religions in Focus ORIGINS OF RELIGION Since the nineteenth century, people began to show great interest in explaining the origins of religion. In fact, numerous theories have been postulated to explain the origin of religion while looking at primi- tive societies for ideas concerning the development of belief systems (Hendry 1999). Archaeologists believe that they have discovered elements of religious belief practised by Homo sapiens almost 60,000 years ago. Apart from burying the dead, various items such as foods, tools, and other objects were placed inside the site. All these rituals imply reverence to their loved ones and perhaps the thought that the dead will utilize these materials in the afterlife. While they believe in the presence of supernatural entities, they also try to communicate with them (Ember & Ember 1996). Various explanations have surfaced that somehow tend to simplify or even denigrate primitive religions. Others maintain that since early humans are weak and ignorant of the different forces of nature, they had to invent religion to explain the seemingly unexplainable mystery and fury of nature. In the process, they had to create a scheme of deities and spirits. Still others contend that religion was conceived by the few to stifle and repress the ideals of the masses (Hopfe 1983). The nineteenth century witnessed the development of the fields of the social WEBLINK Visit the site http://www. sciences that enabled scholars to apply a more scientific way of explaining studyreligion.org/why/ and read phenomena rather than speculate on matters concerning the origin of religion. the article entitled “Why Study Through field research, observations, and analysis of historical documents, Religion?” What is your take on the matter? Discuss the article in class. scholars formulated a number of theories that have endured well into the present time. Table 1.3 summarizes the different theories on the origin of religion and the major proponents of these theories. Name Proponent Explanation GUIDE QUESTION of Theory What are the common characteristics of major Primitive people believed in souls or anima found in people (seen in world religions? Edward Burnett Tylor Animistic dreams) and in all of nature. Since spirits could be helpful or harmful (1832-1917), English Theories to human beings, early people had to pray to these spirits, offer anthropologist sacrifices, and appease or avoid them. Robert Henry In his investigation, he found out that the Melanesian people Codrington (1830- believed in mana, a mysterious force that inhabited all of nature. All 1922), Anglican priest early people began their religion in cognizance of such force; the and anthropologist destructiveness of the mana can be avoided by establishing taboos. Human beings first developed their religions from their observations of the forces of nature. Early people became aware of the regularity of the seasons, the tides and the phases of the moon, Nature-Worship Theory and began personalizing them by giving them names, describing TABLE 1.3 their activities with tales that transformed into mythology. Primitive Theories on the people identified the forces in nature, personified them, created myths, and developed religions around them. Origin of Religion Understanding the Nature of Religion 7  In Australia and Africa, basic cultures held a common belief in a distant high god, that originally there had been one great god above Wilhelm Schmidt all others, and that he may have been the creator of the world GUIDE QUESTION Theory of (1868-1954), Austrian or the father of the many lesser deities. This high god went away What was the use of religion to Original anthropologist and and had little contact with the world that resulted in majority of early humans? Monotheism ethnologist attention and worship to local deities. Primitive societies were originally monotheistic, but because it was difficult to worship just one god, religion was corrupted to polytheism. People had gone three phases of development concerning the spirit world: (1) primitive magic (wherein people attempted to James George Frazer control nature in the hope that nature will cooperate if rituals are Magic Theory (1854-1941), Scottish done properly); (2) religion (wherein people implored nature to social anthropologist cooperate since they have realized that nature can not be coerced); and (3) science (wherein a rational understanding of nature is operative). Ludwig Andreas von There were no gods and that belief in gods was simply wish Feuerbach (1804- fulfilment. Troubled people who could not cope with the difficulties 1872), German in life projected their wishes and developed gods philosopher and and religions. anthropologist Religions were developed by the few as a means to control Karl Heinrich Marx the masses and suppress revolution as a result of the continuing Wish Fulfilment (1818-1883), German struggle between classes. Rulers and allied priests wished to control Theory philosopher and all wealth so they had to create a scheme of gods, heavens, and sociologist hell. Masses were persuaded to accept poverty and be obedient to inherit bliss in another life. Religion originated from the guilt that individuals supposedly feel in Sigmund Freud hating their fathers. All males possess a similar tendency to desire (1856-1939), Austrian our mothers and hate our fathers. As a result of this subconscious neurologist and hatred and ensuing guilt, a great father image was projected in the founder father of sky called God. A healthy mature person can face problems without psychoanalysis the need for gods or religions. Source: Lewis M. Hopfe. Religions of the World (Third Edition). pp. 5-9 8 World Religions in Focus EXPLORING SPIRITUALITY A comparative analysis of major religions reveals that an important charac- teristic of their belief system focuses on the longing for value in life (Parrinder 1971). For thousands of years, people have been searching and yearning to understand the mystery of life and the universe. There may come a point in time when an individual realizes that life is not entirely accidental and meaningless (Parrinder 1971). This is where the concept of spirituality comes in with the term “spiritual” being defined as “relating or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed to material or physical things” (Oxford Diction- aries 2014). One author points out that it is quite common for people to say that they are “spiritual, not religious” (Grassie 2010). Spirituality may be manifested in quite a number of ways. For example, a person may believe in the presence of an overwhelming power greater than oneself or perhaps a person can be fully mindful of one’s purpose in life. That person can also have a feeling of oneness or a bond with other living beings. While spirituality is derived from the Latin word spiritus, its verb root is spirare which means “to breathe” literally. There is an impression that people are surrounded by a “divine reality as pervasive, intimate, necessary, and invisible as the air we breathe” which is similar to Hindu prana and Chinese chi. (Grassie 2010). While religions are frequently viewed as set of ideals practiced and followed by organized groups, “spirituality is something an individual can have without being implicated in the ambivalent complexity of human societies and institutions” (Grassie 2010). Although traditional spirituality is frequently associated with religiosity, many people assert that personal spirituality can grow separately from religion. One may find inner peace, satisfaction, and contentment in life that are truly independent of religious dogmas and tenets. In the study of religion, there are basic concepts that need to be understood such as theology, philosophy of religion, and spirituality. While religion refers to any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices concerning a supernatural power—theology involves the systematic study of the existence and nature of the divine. It deals with the study of the nature and purpose of god that may be undertaken using a particular perspective. Theology is a study, not a formulation of religious beliefs. On the other hand, philosophy of religion deals primarily with issues concerning religion, which includes analysis on the existence of a divine being or on sacred texts. It may involve studying the “concepts and belief systems of the religions as well as the prior phenomena of religious experience and the activities of worship and meditation on which these belief systems rest and out of which they have arisen” (Hick 1990). It seeks to analyze various concepts such as god, spirit, karma, creation, immortality, heaven, hell, and purgatory among others. Philosophy of religion is not a branch of theology but a branch of philosophy. It is said that this particular study need not be undertaken from a religious perspective at all because atheists, agnostics, and the person of faith can and do philosophize about religion (Hick 1990). Understanding the Nature of Religion 9  Meanwhile, spirituality is something an individual can have without being implicated in the ambivalent complexity of human societies and institutions (Grassie 2010). Thus, spirituality can be described as one's integrative view of life and involves a quest for the meaning and ultimate value of life as opposed to an instrumentalist or materialistic attitude to life. Hence, one can be spiritual without being religious. Summary Religion may refer to any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices aimed at communicating or propitiating with supernatural beings. Humans may recognize a superhuman being control- ling power (such as a god or spirit) that seeks worship and obedience from them. Various theories have been formulated that try to explain the origin of religions. Religion may have originated in response to human’s need to explain their dreams and experiences as well as the need to understand the different forces of nature, especially so that humans may have faced pain and ignorance in their daily struggle for existence in early times. While religions are frequently viewed as sets of ideals practiced and followed by organized groups, spirituality involves one’s integrative view of life that is more personal while affecting the human soul. Critical Thinking 1. How does your conception of a divine or supreme being compare with the supernatural beings found in other religious beliefs? 2. Do you agree with specific theory of religion? Defend your answer. 3. Do you consider yourself religious, or spiritual? Explain. Assessment A. Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blanks provided. Column A Column B 1. a belief in the existence of one God viewed as a. theology the creative source of the human race and the world 2. relating or affecting the human spirit or soul that b. agnosticism is one’s personal integrative view on 3. the belief that there is only one God who could c. polytheism have designed and created the universe 4. the belief in many principal gods among whom d. theism no one is supreme 10 World Religions in Focus  5. the belief that there is no genuine distinction e. worldview between God and the universe 6. denial of the existence of God f. monism 7. the belief that God's existence is unknown and g. monotheism unknowable 8. an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and h. atheism rules used to worship a god or a group of gods 9. a collection of beliefs about life and the universe i. religion held by people 10. the systematic study of the existence and nature j. spirituality of the divine B. Answer the following questions. 1. How does religion help explain man's existence and role in the world? 2. How did religion originate? Cite key theories to support your answer. 3. What are the common characteristics of religions? 4. Do you agree that the universe is designed and created by a single divine being or God? Explain your answer. 5. How can an individual lead a spiritual life? Cite some examples. C. Write a two-page essay on the topic “Religion: What Does It Mean to Me?” guided by the following questions: a. What different values have your religion instilled in you? b. What various guiding principles which may have been influenced by your religion do you adhere to in your life? RUBRIC FOR ESSAY CRITERIA DESCRIPTION POINTS POINTS OBTAINED Content The content was well-thought of; guide 7 questions were thoroughly answered Organization The paper was well-written with ideas easily 7 conveyed to readers. Development Points are thoroughly developed 6 Total: 20 On to the Next Lesson You have learned in this opening lesson the nature of religion and other concepts related to belief systems.You have familiarized yourself with the different theories on the origin of religions as humans continue their endless search to find meanings and explanations in their everyday existence relative to the world around them. The next lesson will take you into the historical, geographical, and cultural contexts of various world religions of today. Understanding the Nature of Religion 11  Sources BOOKS Auboyer, Jeannine. Daily Life in Ancient India (From 200 BC to 700 AD). London: Phoenix Press, 2002. Batchelor, Martin. Zen. London: Thorsons, 2001. Baxter, Craig et. al. Government and Politics in South Asia (Fourth Edition). Colorado: Westview Press, 1998. Bowker, John. World Religions. New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1997. Brown, David A. A Guide to Religions (TEF Study Guide 12): Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1987. Bruteau, Beatrice. What We Can Learn from the East. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1995. Clasper, Paul. Eastern Paths and the Christian Way. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992. Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). Eastern Religions. London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2005. De Bary, William Theodore. East Asian Civilizations: A Dialogue in Five Stages. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. Dhammananda, K. Sri. Why Worry? How to Live Without Fear & Worry. Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1996. Dutt, R. C. Ramayana: Epic of Ram, Prince of India. New Delhi: Rupa.Co, 2001. Ember, Carol R. & Melvin Ember. Anthropology (Eight Edition). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1996. Grassie, William. The New Sciences of Religion: Exploring Spirituality from the Outside In and Bottom Up. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth. New York: New York University Press, 1997. Hendry, Joy. Other People’s Worlds: An Introduction to Cultural and Social Anthropology. New York: New York University Press, 1999. Hick, Philosophy H. Philosophy of Religion (Fourth Edition). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, 1997. Hopfe, Lewis M. Religions of the World (Third Edition). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1983. Israel, Samuel & Bikram Grewal. India (Insight Guides). APA Publications, 1989. King, Jenny. World’s Religions: Know and Understand the Different Beliefs. Worldlink Books 2002. Kolanad, Gitanjali. Culture Shock! India. Oregon: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, 1994. Kulananda. Buddhism. London: Thorsons, 2001. Kung, Chin. Buddhism: The Wisdom of Compassion and Awakening. Singapore: Amitabha Buddhist Society1999. Larson, Martin A. New Thought Religion: A Philosophy for Health, Happiness, and Prosperity. New York: Philosophical Library Inc., 1987. Losch, Richard R. The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions. Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2001. Mizuno, Kogen. Basic Buddhist Concepts. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co., 1987. Nikhilananda, Swami. The Upanishads. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated, 1964. Okawa, Ryuho. The Laws of Eternity: Unfolding the Secrets of the Multidimensional Universe. Dorset: Element Books Limited, 1998. Parrinder, Geoffrey (ed.). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. New York: Facts on File, 1971. Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. New York: Picador, 2005. Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 2000. Storm, Rachel. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Mythology. New York: Lorenz Books, 1999. Subramuniyaswami, Satguru Sivaya. Loving Ganesa: Hinduism’s Endearing Elephant-Faced God. India: Himalayan Academy, 1996. Suriyabongs, Luang. Buddhism: An Introduction. Colombo: The Lanka Boddha Mandalaya, n.d. Thapar, Romila. A History of India (Volume One). London: Penguin Group, 1990. The Dhammapada. South Australia: Axiom Publishing, 2002. 12 World Religions in Focus The Story of Buddha. New Delhi: Hemkunt Press, 1978. Toula-Breysse, Juan-Luc. The path of Buddhism. United Kingdom: Cassell & Co., 2001. Villaba, Magdalena A. Philosophy of the East. Manila: UST Publishing House, 1996. Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India (Fourth Edition). New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Yoshinori, Takeuchi. The Heart of Buddhism: In Search of the Timeless Spirit of Primitive Buddhism. New York: The Cross- road Publishing Company, 1991. INTERNET SOURCES “Agnosticism.” New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01215c.htm (accessed September 22, 2014) “Atheism.” New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02040a.htm (accessed September 22, 2014) “Monism.” New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10483a.htm (accessed September 21, 2014) “Monotheism.” New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm (accessed September 22, 2014) “Polytheism.” New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12223b.htm (accessed September 22, 2014) “Spirituality.” University of Maryland Medical Center. http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/treatment/spirituality (accessed September 19, 2014) The Free Dictionary. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ (accessed September 20, 2014) Understanding the Nature of Religion 13  LESSON TWO Origin of World Religions S ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING imilar to living organisms, religions are born in history and they Religions have their origin gradually develop into living traditions and affect the lives of their stories and are universal followers. Belief systems originate in certain localities within the context in nature. Geography and culture have an of culture and even geography. From their rudimentary forms, religions effect on the establishment and continually evolved into complicated systems replete with rites and practices development of religions. that made recruitment of members necessary. Quite unfortunately, other ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS religions also decline as in the case of Zoroastrianism that once flourished How can we compare the in South Asia but is now only confined to Iran, India, and Central Asia. nature of religions based on They may also give impetus to establish new movements within religious their historical foundation, geographical setting, and groups, such as in the case of Buddhism that may be viewed as a reaction cultural milieu? to the overly ritualistic beliefs and the exclusivity of Hinduism. They may How is religion affected by geography and culture? also contribute to the foundation of other religions, such as those themes Christianity borrowed from Judaism, and themes Islam borrowed from both Christianity and Judaism (Brasswell 1994). This lesson will deal with the origin of religions along with the geographical context and cultural milieu that have impacted the establishment of world religions and belief systems. A painting by Jozsef Molnar depicting Abraham's journey from Ur to Canaan. Abraham's story is one of the highlights in Abrahamic religions. 14 World Religions in Focus MOTIVATIONAL ACTIVITY Each picture symbolizes a type of religion. Identify the religion that each picture tries to depict. Write a brief explanation on why you identified a religion with one of the given pictures. 1. 3. 5. 2. 4. 6. CONCEPT MAP WORLD RELIGIONS Historical Geographical Cultural Foundation Context Milieu HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Scholars hold the view that religion is universal and can be found in all known contemporary societies (Ember & Ember 1997). Even the most funda- mental of belief systems can be seen to a greater or lesser degree in all religions (Hopfe 1983). Various theories have been formulated to explain the origin of religion. Even prehistoric humans, such as the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, have practiced a set of belief systems in one way or another, including burying their dead, painting on the walls of caves, and carving images from stones. The existence of humankind for so long a time has resulted in the formation of religion and belief system. It is certain that many religions may have been unrecorded in the past. Others may have gradually died down. This lesson will deal primarily with religions that are still active until the present time. The succeeding table illustrates some significant dates in the history of the establishment of several world religions. Origin of World Religions 15  Date (circa) Significance c. 2000 B.C.E. time of Abraham, the patriarch of Israel c. 1200 B.C.E. time of Moses, the Hebrew leader of the Exodus c. 1100 – 500 B.C.E. Hindus compiled their holy texts, the Vedas c. 563 – 83 B.C.E. time of the Buddha, founder of Buddhism c. 551 – 479 B.C.E. time of Confucius, founder of Confucianism c. 200 B.C.E. the Hindu book, Bhagavad Gita, was written c. 2 to 4 B.C.E – 32 C.E. time of Jesus Christ, the Messiah and founder of Christianity c. 32 C.E. the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus Christ c. 40 – 90 C.E. the New Testament was written by the followers of Jesus Christ c. 100 C.E. Beginnings of Shintoism (no known founder) TABLE 2.1 c. 500-580 B.C.E. Time of Lao Tze, founder of Daoism Important Dates on the c. 570 – 632 C.E. time of Muhammad, who recorded the Q’uran as the basis of Islam Origin of World Religions Source: http://www.allaboutreligion.org/origin-of-religion.htm The Patriarch Abraham GUIDE QUESTION The prophet and patriarch Abraham played a major role in the establishment Why is Abraham important to of the three monotheistic religions: namely, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? which account for more than half of the world’s total population at present. As such, these organized religions are collectively known as Abrahamic religions. The Jewish people regard Abraham as the ancestor of the Israelites, through his descendants Isaac and Jacob. The Muslims consider Abraham’s son Ishmael as the ancestor of the Arabs. The Christians view Abraham as ‘father in faith’ as narrated in the Bible and the ancestor of Jesus Christ. Notable religious personalities trace their origin in Abraham’s sons from different wives through their descendants. The importance of Abraham in these three religions lies in the fact that the patriarch appears as an elemental figure for a monotheistic belief system and a paragon of extreme devotion. Derived from a common source, it is but natural that the three monotheistic religions share some commonalities in their basic tenets. For one, they all worship one supreme being. The ancient Hebrews call their God Elohim, Adonai, or Yahweh. Present-day Judaism uses the names “Lord” and “God.” For the Muslims, they call their God as Allah. In addition, prophets and apostles play major roles in these religions. Judaism has 48 prophets and seven prophetesses. Early prophets include Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, and Joshua to name a few. In Christianity, the 12 apostles were the primary disciples of Jesus Christ, some of whom wrote parts of the New Testament. For the Muslims, they believe that Muhammad is the final prophet or the “Seal of the Prophets.” Prior to their establishment as organized religions, the role of divine