Introduction to Anatomy NURS117 PDF

9/16/2024 NURS117 ANATOMY 1 Wireko Bannor Manasseh Peter N. Coffie Recommended Books Grine, Frederick E. (2008). Regional Human Anatomy, 4thed.New York: McGraw- Hill. Marieb E...

9/16/2024 NURS117 ANATOMY 1 Wireko Bannor Manasseh Peter N. Coffie Recommended Books Grine, Frederick E. (2008). Regional Human Anatomy, 4thed.New York: McGraw- Hill. Marieb E.N (2010). Human Anatomy and Physiology 8th ed. San Francisco, Pearson. O’Loughlin M. (2008). Human Anatomy. 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill. Ross, J. S. and Wilson, K. J. W. (2010). Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. Elsevier: Health Sciences. Seeley, R. VanPutte, C. Regan, J. Russo, A. (2011). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. Shier, D., Butler, J. and Lewis, J. (2010). Hole’s human anatomy and physiology 12th edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 1  9/16/2024 Outline Language of Anatomy-Anatomical positions; Directional terms; Regional terms; Body planes and sections; Body cavities and Membranes; Abdominal-pelvic regions and quadrants The Cellular level of organization: Types, structure, composition, protein synthesis, division - mitosis and meiosis. The tissue level of organization: Types, structure, composition, aging and injury The cardiovascular system Educate, develop, Train and Mentor General Rules Attendance & Punctuality: Attend all lectures and labs unless there is a valid reason for your absence. Be on time for all classes and respect the schedule. Active Participation: Engage actively during lectures and discussions. Ask questions and contribute thoughtfully to group work or class discussions. Respect & Etiquette: Be respectful to the lecturer and your classmates. Avoid talking while others speak and keep your mobile devices silent during class. Be open to differing opinions and constructive feedback. Assignment Deadlines: Submit all assignments on or before the due date. Extensions are only granted in exceptional circumstances and must be requested in advance. Late submissions may result in penalties unless previously arranged with the lecturer. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 2  9/16/2024 General Rules cont’d Academic Integrity: Uphold academic honesty in all your work. Plagiarism or cheating will result in disciplinary action. Always cite your sources properly and do your work. Communication: Check your university email regularly for any updates or important information. If you have questions or concerns, email the lecturer during office hours. Classroom Environment: Keep the classroom environment conducive to learning. Refrain from eating, chatting, or using social media during class. Preparation for Class: Read assigned materials and complete any preparatory work before coming to class. Bring any required materials, such as textbooks, notebooks, or laptops, as necessary. Group Work: Participate fully in group projects and take responsibility for your part. Respect the contributions of others and aim for collaboration. Feedback: Be open to feedback on your work and use it constructively to improve. Provide constructive feedback when asked and participate in course evaluations at the end of the term. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor COURSE ASSESSMENT METHOD OF ASSESSMENT Continuous assessment - 40%  Class Attendance - 5%  Presentations - 5%  Quizzes - 10%  Mid-Semester Examination - 20% End of Semester Examination - 60% Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3  9/16/2024 The Human Body: An Orientation Anatomy The Human Body – An Orientation Anatomy – study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4  9/16/2024 Anatomy – Levels of Study Gross Anatomy Large structures Easily observable Macroscopic level Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Anatomy – Levels of Study Microscopic Anatomy Very small structures Can only be viewed with a microscope Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 5  9/16/2024 Levels of Structural Organization Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Organ System Overview Integumentary Forms the external body covering (skin and its appendages) Protects deeper tissue from injury and drying out (physical barrier) Synthesizes vitamin D Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 6  9/16/2024 Organ System Overview Skeletal Protects and supports body organs Provides muscle attachment for movement Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Organ System Overview Muscular Allows locomotion Maintains posture Produces heat Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 7  9/16/2024 Organ System Overview Nervous Fast-acting control system Responds to internal and external change Activates muscles and glands Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 16 8  9/16/2024 Organ System Overview Endocrine Secretes regulatory hormones Growth Reproduction Metabolism Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Organ System Overview Cardiovascular Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nutrients Wastes Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 9  9/16/2024 Organ System Overview Lymphatic Returns fluids to blood vessels Disposes of debris Involved in immunity- destroys bacteria and tumor cells (lymphocytes) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Organ System Overview Respiratory Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Removes carbon dioxide Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 10  9/16/2024 21 Organ System Overview Digestive Breaks down food Allows for nutrient absorption into blood Eliminates indigestible material Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 11  9/16/2024 Organ System Overview Urinary Eliminates nitrogenous wastes Maintains acid – base balance Regulation of materials Water Electrolytes Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Organ System Overview Reproductive Production of offspring Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 12  9/16/2024 The Language of Anatomy Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding Exact terms are used for: Position (planes) Direction Regions (cavities) Structures (structural unit) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Orientation and Directional Terms Table 1.1 Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 13  9/16/2024 Orientation and Directional Terms Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Body Landmarks Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 14  9/16/2024 Body Landmarks Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Body Planes Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 15  9/16/2024 Body Cavities Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Abdominopelvic Major Organs Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 16  9/16/2024 Abdominopelvic Quadrants Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Educate, develop,34Train and Mentor 17  9/16/2024 Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 36 18  9/16/2024 Introduction to cell biology An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-1 List the functions of the plasma membrane and the structural features that enable it to perform those functions. 3-2 Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and indicate the specific functions of each. 3-3 Explain the functions of the cell nucleus and discuss the nature and importance of the genetic code. 3-4 Summarize the role of DNA in protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 19  9/16/2024 An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-5 Describe the processes of cellular diffusion and osmosis, and explain their role in physiological systems. 3-6 Describe carrier-mediated transport and vesicular transport mechanisms used by cells to facilitate the absorption or removal of specific substances. 3-7 Explain the origin and significance of the transmembrane potential. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor An Introduction to Cells Learning Outcomes 3-8 Describe the stages of the cell life cycle, including mitosis, interphase, and cytokinesis, and explain their significance. 3-9 Discuss the regulation of the cell life cycle. 3-10 Discuss the relationship between cell division and cancer. 3-11 Define differentiation and explain its importance. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 20  9/16/2024 An Introduction to Cells Cell Theory Developed from Robert Hooke’s research Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals All cells come from the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Educate, develop, Train and Mentor An Introduction to Cells Sex Cells (Germ Cells) Reproductive cells Male sperm Female oocyte (a cell that develops into an egg) Somatic Cells Soma = body All body cells except sex cells Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 21  9/16/2024 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell  Plasma membrane  Nonmembranous organelles  Membranous organelles Secretory vesicles Centrosome and Centrioles Cytoplasm contains two centrioles CYTOSOL at right angles; each centriole is composed of 9 microtubule triplets in a 9  0 array Functions Centrosome Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division; organization of Centrioles microtubules in cytoskeleton 43 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell  Plasma membrane  Nonmembranous organelles Cytoskeleton Proteins organized  Membranous organelles Microfilament in fine filaments or slender tubes Functions Strength and support; movement of Microtubule cellular structures and materials Plasma Membrane Lipid bilayer containing phospholipids, steroids, proteins, Free ribosomes and carbohydrates Functions Isolation; protection; sensitivity; support; Cytosol (distributes controls entry materials and exit of by diffusion) materials 44 22  9/16/2024 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell Microvilli Membrane extensions containing microfilaments Function Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extra-cellular materials  Plasma membrane  Nonmembranous organelles  Membranous organelles 45 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell Cilia Cilia are long extensions containing microtubule doublets in a 9  2 array (not  Plasma membrane shown in the model cell)  Nonmembranous organelles Function Movement of material over  Membranous organelles cell surface Proteasomes Hollow cylinders of proteolytic enzymes with regulatory proteins at their ends Functions Breakdown and recycling of damaged or abnormal intracellular proteins Ribosomes RNA  proteins; fixed ribosomes bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes scattered in cytoplasm Function Protein synthesis 46 23  9/16/2024 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened membranes (cisternae) containing chambers Functions Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes Mitochondria Double membrane, with inner membrane folds (cristae) enclosing important metabolic enzymes Functions Produce 95% of the ATP required by the cell Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Network of membranous Rough ER NUCLEUS channels extending modifies and throughout the packages newly cytoplasm synthesized proteins Functions Synthesis of secretory Smooth ER products; intracellular synthesizes storage and transport lipids and carbohydrates Peroxisomes Vesicles containing degradative enzymes Functions Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds,  Plasma membrane neutralization of toxic  Nonmembranous organelles compounds generated in the process  Membranous organelles 47 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell  Plasma membrane  Nonmembranous organelles  Membranous organelles Peroxisomes Vesicles containing degradative enzymes Functions Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds, neutralization of toxic compounds Free ribosomes generated in the process Lysosomes Vesicles containing digestive enzymes Functions Intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens 48 24  9/16/2024 Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell Chromatin Nuclear NUCLEUS envelope Nucleoplasm containing NUCLEOPLASM Nucleolus nucleotides, (site of rRNA enzymes, synthesis and nucleoproteins, and assembly of chromatin; ribosomal surrounded by a subunits) double membrane, the nuclear envelope Nuclear Functions: pore Control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic information; control of protein synthesis 49 3-1 Plasma Membrane Extracellular Fluid (Interstitial Fluid) A watery medium that surrounds a cell Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid Cytoplasm Cytosol = liquid Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 25  9/16/2024 3-1 Plasma Membrane Functions of the Plasma Membrane Physical Isolation Barrier Regulation of Exchange with the Environment (selective permeability) Ions and nutrients enter Wastes eliminated and cellular products released Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-1 Plasma Membrane Functions of the Plasma Membrane Sensitivity to the Environment Extracellular fluid composition Chemical signals (receptors) Structural Support Anchors the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell. Plays a role in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 26  9/16/2024 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Lipids Phospholipid bilayer (double layer) Hydrophilic heads — toward the watery environment, both sides (cytoplasm and ECF) Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails — inside membrane Allows easy passage of water molecules via osmosis Barrier to ions and water-soluble compounds Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins (Integral and Peripheral proteins) Integral Proteins Within the membrane (attached to lipids in the bilayer) Transmembrane: hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. The hydrophilic ends of the molecule are exposed to the aqueous solutions on either side of the membrane Monotopic proteins- are only embedded into one side of the cell membrane Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 27  9/16/2024 3-1 Plasma Membrane Peripheral Proteins Bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane are not embedded in the lipid bilayer Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins Anchoring Proteins (stabilizers) Attach to inside or outside structures Cell adhesion molecules outside the cell (gap junctions and tight junctions) Structural supports inside the cell attaching to cytoskeleton structures, which hold organelles in place in the cytoplasm. Recognition Proteins (identifiers) Label cells as normal or abnormal (identity markers) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 28  9/16/2024 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins Enzymes Catalyze reactions (Na-K ATPase) Receptor Proteins Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones, neurotransmitters) Carrier Proteins Transport specific solutes through the membrane Channels Regulate water flow and solutes through the membrane Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 58 29  9/16/2024 59 3-1 Plasma Membrane Membrane Carbohydrates Glycoproteins, and glycolipids Extend outside cell membrane Form sticky “sugar coat” (glycocalyx) Functions of the glycocalyx Lubrication and Protection Anchoring and Locomotion (cell adhesion molecules) Specificity in Binding (receptors) Recognition and attaching sites for pathogens (immune response) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 30  9/16/2024 Figure 3-2 The Plasma Membrane EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Glycolipids Phospholipid Integral protein Integral of glycocalyx bilayer with channel glycoproteins Hydrophobic tails Plasma membrane Cholesterol Peripheral Hydrophilic proteins heads Gated channel Cytoskeleton  2 nm (Microfilaments) CYTOPLASM 61 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Cytoplasm All materials inside the cell and outside the nucleus Cytosol (intracellular fluid) Main constituent is water Dissolved materials Nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat Organelles Structures with specific functions Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 31  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Organelles Non membranous organelles No membrane Direct contact with cytosol Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes Membranous organelles Covered with plasma membrane Isolated from cytosol Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Structural proteins for shape, strength and internal organization. Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 32  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Microfilaments — smallest type (6nm) thin filaments composed of the protein actin In many cells, they are found beneath the cell cortex Provide additional mechanical strength to the plasma membrane Pair with thick filaments of myosin for muscle movement (contraction) In non-muscle cells, actin filaments are less organized and myosin is much less prominent Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Intermediate filaments — mid-sized (10nm) between microfilaments and thick filaments Durable (collagen) Strengthen cell and maintain shape Stabilize organelles Stabilize cell position Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 33  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm The Cytoskeleton Microtubules — large, hollow tubes of tubulin protein Attach to centrosome Strengthen cell and anchor organelles Change cell shape Move vesicles within cell (kinesin and dynein) Form spindle apparatus Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 68 34  9/16/2024 Figure 3-3a The Cytoskeleton Microvillus Microfilaments Plasma membrane Terminal web Mitochondrion Intermediate filaments Endoplasmic reticulum Microtubule Secretory vesicle The cytoskeleton provides strength and structural support for the cell and its organelles. Interactions between cytoskeletal components are also important in moving organelles and in changing the69shape of the cell. Figure 3-3b The Cytoskeleton Microvillus Microfilaments Terminal web The microfilaments and microvilli of an intestinal cell. Such an image, produced by a scanning electron microscope, is called a scanning electron micrograph (SEM) (SEM 70  30,000). 35  9/16/2024 Figure 3-3c The Cytoskeleton Microtubules (yellow) in a living cell, as seen after special fluorescent labeling (LM  3200). 71 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Microvilli Increase surface area for absorption Attach to cytoskeleton (microfilaments) Centrioles in the Centrosome Centrioles form spindle apparatus during cell division Centrosome cytoplasm surrounding centriole Cilia Small hair-like extensions Cilia move fluids across the cell surface Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 36  9/16/2024 Figure 3-4a Centrioles and Cilia Microtubules Centriole. A centriole consists of nine microtubule triplets (known as a 9  0 array). A pair of centrioles orientated at right angles to one another occupies the centrosome. This micrograph, produced by a transmission electron microscope, is called a TEM. 73 Figure 3-4b Centrioles and Cilia Plasma membrane Microtubules Basal body Cilium. A cilium contains nine pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair (9  2 array). The basal body to which the cilium is anchored has a structure similar to that of a centriole. 74 37  9/16/2024 Figure 3-4c Centrioles and Cilia Power stroke Return stroke Ciliary movement. Action of a single cilium. During the power stroke, the cilium is relatively stiff; during the return stroke, it bends and returns to its original position. 75 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Ribosomes Build polypeptides in protein synthesis Two types 1. Free ribosomes in cytoplasm Manufacture proteins for cell (cytosol) 2. Fixed ribosomes attached to ER Manufacture proteins for secretion either within or outside the cell membrane. Proteasomes Contain enzymes (proteases) Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 38  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Membranous Organelles Five types of membranous organelles 1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 2. Golgi apparatus 3. Lysosomes 4. Peroxisomes 5. Mitochondria Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Endo- = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum = network Cisternae are storage chambers within membranes Functions 1. Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids 2. Storage of synthesized molecules and materials 3. Transport of materials within the ER 4. Detoxification of drugs or toxins Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 39  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) No ribosomes attached Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates Phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes) Steroid hormones (reproductive system) Glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells) Glycogen (storage in muscles) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) Surface covered with ribosomes (site for protein synthesis) Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis Folds polypeptide protein structures Encloses products in transport vesicles Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 40  9/16/2024 81 Figure 3-5a The Endoplasmic Reticulum Nucleus Rough endoplasmic reticulum with fixed (attached) ribosomes Smooth endoplasmic Ribosomes reticulum The three-dimensional relationships between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticula are shown here. Cisternae 82 41  9/16/2024 Figure 3-5b The Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum with fixed (attached) ribosomes Free ribosomes Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic TEM  111,000 Reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes in the cytoplasm of a cell. 83 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face Functions 1. Modifies and packages secretions Hormones or enzymes Released through exocytosis 2. Renews or modifies the plasma membrane 3. Packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in the cytoplasm Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 42  9/16/2024 Figure 3-6a The Golgi Apparatus Secretory vesicles Secretory product Transport vesicles Here is a three-dimensional view of the Golgi apparatus with a cut edge. 85 Figure 3-6b The Golgi Apparatus Golgi apparatus TEM  42,000 This is a sectional view of the Golgi apparatus of an active 86 secretory cell. 43  9/16/2024 Protein Synthesis Proteins are essential to cellular function and structure. Functions Proteins are part of membrane structures (proteins are embedded in the double phospholipid layer). Enzymes are protein catalysts (all chemical reactions in the cell require enzymes) Immune system functions through the production of antibodies (large proteins) that attack foreign proteins (antigens). Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 88 44  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Protein released into cytoplasm Smooth ER Ribosome DNA Rough ER mRNA Cytoplasm Nucleus Transport vesicle Nuclear pore 89 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Cisternae Lysosome Exocytosis at Secreting cell surface vesicle Cis face of Golgi complex Trans face of Golgi complex Membrane renewal vesicle Membrane renewal 90 45  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis DNA mRNA Cytoplasm Nucleus 91 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Ribosome Rough ER mRNA Cytoplasm 92 46  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Protein released into cytoplasm Ribosome 93 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Rough ER Cytoplasm 94 47  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Smooth ER Transport vesicle 95 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Cisternae Cis face of Golgi complex 96 48  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Cisternae Cis face of Golgi complex Trans face of Golgi complex 97 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Lysosome Trans face of Golgi complex 98 49  9/16/2024 Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis Exocytosis at Secreting cell surface vesicle Trans face of Golgi complex Membrane renewal vesicle Membrane 99 renewal 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Lysosomes Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles Lyso- = dissolve, soma = body Primary lysosome Formed by Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes Secondary lysosome Lysosome fused with damaged organelle Digestive enzymes activated Toxic chemicals isolated Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 50  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Lysosomes Functions 1. Lysosomes act in the maintenance and repair of cellular components 2. Lysosomes also act as suicide agents in old and weakened cells (Autolysis) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Clean Up inside Cells Break down large molecules Attack bacteria Recycle damaged organelles Eject wastes by exocytosis 102 51  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Autolysis Auto- = self, lysis = break Self-destruction of damaged cells Lysosome membranes break down Digestive enzymes released Cell decomposes Cellular materials recycle Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 3-8 Lysosome Functions Activation of lysosomes occurs when: Golgi apparatus A primary lysosome fuses with the membrane of another Damaged organelle organelle, such as a mitochondrion Autolysis liberates Secondary digestive enzymes Primary lysosome lysosome A primary lysosome fuses with an endosome containing fluid Reabsorption or solid materials from outside the cell Reabsorption Endosome The lysosomal membrane Secondary breaks down during autolysis lysosome following injury to, or death of, the cell Extracellular solid or fluid Endocytosis Exocytosis Exocytosis ejects residue ejects residue 104 52  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Peroxisomes Are enzyme-containing vesicles Break down fatty acids, organic compounds Produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and facilitate its conversion into water and oxygen. Replicate by division (self-replicating organelles) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondria Have smooth outer membrane and inner membrane with numerous folds (cristae) Cellular respiration occurs on these cristae Matrix Fluid around cristae Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food (glucose) Produces energy molecule ATP Cells with high-energy requirements (like muscle cells) will have mitochondria with many folds or cristae. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 53  9/16/2024 Figure 3-9a Mitochondria Inner membrane Organic molecules and O2 Outer membrane Matrix Cristae Enzymes Cytoplasm of cell Cristae Matrix Outer membrane Mitochondrion TEM  46,332 Shown here is the three-dimensional organization and a color-enhanced TEM of a typical107mitochondrion in section. 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondrial Energy Production Glycolysis Glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol) Citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle and the tricarboxylic acid cycle or TCA cycle) Pyruvic acid to CO2 (in matrix) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 54  9/16/2024 3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm Mitochondrial Energy Production Called aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration) Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP Glucose + oxygen + ADP carbon dioxide + water + ATP 109 Figure 3-9b Mitochondria CYTOPLASM Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate Enzymes ADP  and coenzymes phosphate of cristae Citric Acid Cycle MATRIX MITOCHONDRION This is an overview of the role of mitochondria in energy production. Mitochondria absorb short carbon chains (such as pyruvate) and oxygen and generate 110 carbon dioxide and ATP. 55  9/16/2024 3-3 Cell Nucleus Nucleus Largest organelle The cell’s control center Nuclear envelope Double membrane around the nucleus Perinuclear space Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope Nuclear pores Communication passages Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 3-10a The Nucleus Nucleoplasm Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Nuclear pore Nucleus TEM  4800 Important nuclear structures are shown here. 112 56  9/16/2024 Figure 3-10b The Nucleus Nuclear pore Perinuclear space Nuclear envelope A nuclear pore is a large protein complex that spans the nuclear 113 envelope. Figure 3-10c The Nucleus Nuclear pores Inner membrane of nuclear envelope Broken edge of outer membrane Outer membrane of nuclear envelope Nucleus Freeze fracture SEM  9240 This cell was frozen and then broken apart to make its internal structures visible. The technique, called freeze fracture or freeze-etching, provides a unique perspective on the internal organization of cells. The nuclear envelope and nuclear pores are visible. The fracturing process broke away part of the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, and the cut edge of the nucleus can be seen. 114 57  9/16/2024 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus DNA All information to build and run organisms Nucleoplasm Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA Nuclear matrix Support filaments Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus Nucleoli Are related to protein production Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits Nucleosomes DNA coiled around histones to give chromosomes a more compact structure. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 58  9/16/2024 3-3 Cell Nucleus Contents of the Nucleus Chromatin Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing) Chromosomes Thickened and compact DNA (during division) Made of DNA molecules and proteins. The cells of the human body contain 46 chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Introduction to Cellular Reproduction The process by which a single cell duplicates itself. The process is made up of: Duplication of genetic material in the nucleus (Interphase) Replication of nuclear material (mitosis) Duplication of the cellular organelles in the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) Leads to the formation of two new daughter cells Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 59  9/16/2024 Introduction to Cellular Reproduction Also the process by which our genetic material is passed on to our offspring from one generation to the next. Special cells called sex cells, the egg and the sperm, are produced. The genetic material must not only be duplicated, but it must also be reduced in half. A special kind of cellular reduction division called meiosis which occurs only in the gonads. The genetic material is returned to its full complement of 46 chromosomes after fertilization Educate, develop, Train and Mentor The Structure of the DNA Molecule The molecule that contains all the hereditary information of an individual Every DNA molecule is a double helical chain of nucleotides Three main components: Phosphate (PO4) groups five carbon sugars (deoxyribose) nitrogen-containing bases called purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine). Adenine always pairs up with thymine and guanine always pairs up with cytosine. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 60  9/16/2024 121 The Cell Cycle Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 61  9/16/2024 Mitosis Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Meiosis In sexual reproduction, two specialized cells (the sperm and the egg) known as gametes unite to form a fertilized egg or zygote. The advantage of sexual reproduction is the increased genetic variability. Occurs only in special organs of the body—in the female gonads or ovaries and in the male gonads or testes. Meiosis is a reduction division of the nuclear material so that each gamete contains only half as much hereditary material as the parent cell. This reduced number is called the haploid. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 62  9/16/2024 125 126 63  9/16/2024 127 The tissue level of organization 64  9/16/2024 An Introduction to Tissues Learning Outcomes 4-1 Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles. 4-2 Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue. 4-3 Describe the relationship between form and function for each type of epithelium. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor An Introduction to Tissues Learning Outcomes 4-4 Compare the structures and functions of the various types of connective tissues. 4-5 Describe how cartilage and bone function as a supporting connective tissue. 4-6 Explain how epithelial and connective tissues combine to form four types of tissue membranes, and specify the functions of each. 4-7 Describe how connective tissue establishes the framework of the body. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 65  9/16/2024 An Introduction to Tissues Learning Outcomes 4-8 Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features of each type. 4-9 Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue 4-10 Describe how injuries affect the tissues of the body. 4-11 Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor An Introduction to Tissues Tissues Structures with discrete structural and functional properties Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart or liver Organs can be grouped into 11 organ systems 132 66  9/16/2024 4-1 Four Types of Tissue Tissue Are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions Four types of tissue 1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue 4. Neural tissue Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-1 Four Types of Tissue Epithelial Tissue Covers exposed surfaces Lines internal passageways Forms glands Connective Tissue Fills internal spaces (loose connective tissue) Supports other tissues Transports materials Stores energy Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 67  9/16/2024 4-1 Four Types of Tissue Muscle Tissue Specialized for contraction Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs Neural Tissue Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Epithelia Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces Glands Structures that produce secretions Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 68  9/16/2024 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Characteristics of Epithelia Cellularity (cell junctions) Polarity (apical and basal surfaces) Attachment (basement membrane or basal lamina) Avascularity Regeneration Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 4-1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells Cilia Microvilli Apical surface Golgi apparatus Nucleus Mitochondria Basement membrane Basolateral 138 surfaces 69  9/16/2024 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Functions of Epithelial Tissue 1. Provide Physical Protection (eg skin and inner lining of GI tract) 2. Control Permeability (absorption) 3. Provide Sensation 4. Produce Specialized Secretions (glandular epithelium) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Specializations of Epithelial Cells 1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) 2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) 3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers) Polarity 1. Apical surfaces Microvilli increase absorption or secretion Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid 2. Basolateral surfaces anchors epithelial cells to each other and to underlying tissues Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 70  9/16/2024 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 1. Intercellular connections 2. Attachment to the basement membrane 3. Epithelial maintenance and repair Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Intercellular Connections Support and communication CAMs (cell adhesion molecules) Transmembrane proteins Intercellular cement Proteoglycans Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) Glycosaminoglycans Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 71  9/16/2024 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Intercellular Connections Cell junctions Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material 1. Tight junctions 2. Gap junctions 3. Desmosomes Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Tight Junctions Between two plasma membranes Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web Prevents passage of water and solutes Isolates wastes in the lumen Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 72  9/16/2024 Figure 4-2b Cell Junctions Interlocking junctional proteins Tight junction Terminal web Adhesion belt A tight junction is formed by the fusion of the outer layers of two plasma membranes. Tight junctions prevent the diffusion of fluids and solutes between the cells. A continuous adhesion belt lies deep to the tight junction. This belt is tied to the microfilaments 145 of the terminal web. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Gap Junctions Allow rapid communication Are held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons) Allow ions to pass Coordinate contractions in heart muscle Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 73  9/16/2024 Figure 4-2c Cell Junctions Embedded proteins (connexons) Gap junctions permit the free diffusion of ions and small molecules between two cells. 147 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Desmosomes CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular cement Spot desmosomes Tie cells together Allow bending and twisting Hemidesmosomes Attach cells to the basal lamina Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 74  9/16/2024 Figure 4-2d Cell Junctions Intermediate filaments Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) Dense area Proteoglycans A spot desmosome ties adjacent cells together. 149 Figure 4-2e Cell Junctions Clear layer Basement Dense membrane layer Hemidesmosomes attach a cell to extracellular structures, such as the protein fibers in the basement membrane. 150 75  9/16/2024 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Attachment to the Basement Membrane Clear layer (lamina lucida) Thin layer Secreted by epithelia Barrier to proteins Dense layer (lamina densa) Thick fibers Produced by connective tissue Strength and filtration Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 4-2a Cell Junctions Tight junction Adhesion belt Terminal web Spot desmosome Gap junctions Hemidesmosome This is a diagrammatic view of an epithelial cell, showing the major types of intercellular connections. 152 76  9/16/2024 Figure 4-2 Cell Junctions Interlocking junctional proteins Tight junction Tight junction Adhesion belt Terminal web Spot desmosome Adhesion belt Gap junctions Hemidesmosome Embedded proteins (connexons) Intermediate filaments Clear layer Basement Dense membrane layer Dense area Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) Proteoglycans 153 4-2 Epithelial Tissue Epithelial Maintenance and Repair Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) Near basement membrane Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 77  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Singular = Epithelium; Plural = Epithelia Classes of Epithelia 1. Based on shape Squamous epithelia — thin and flat Cuboidal epithelia — square shaped Columnar epithelia — tall, slender rectangles 2. Based on layers Simple epithelium — single layer of cells Stratified epithelium — several layers of cells Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia 156 78  9/16/2024 Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia 157 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Simple squamous epithelium Absorption and diffusion Mesothelium (serous tissue) Lines body cavities (pleura, peritoneum and pericardium) Endothelium Lines heart and blood vessels Glandular Epithelium (exocrine and endocrine glands) Involutions of epithelial cells specialized for synthesizing special compounds. Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 79  9/16/2024 Figure 4-3a Squamous Epithelia Simple Squamous Epithelium LOCATIONS: Mesothelia lining ventral body cavities; endothelia lining heart and blood vessels; portions of kidney tubules (thin sections of nephron loops); inner lining of cornea; alveoli of lungs FUNCTIONS: Reduces friction; controls vessel permeability; performs absorption and secretion Cytoplasm Nucleus Connective tissue LM  238 Lining of peritoneal cavity 159 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Squamous Epithelia Stratified squamous epithelium Protects against attacks Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 80  9/16/2024 Figure 4-3b Squamous Epithelia Stratified Squamous Epithelium LOCATIONS: Surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina FUNCTIONS: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack Squamous superficial cells Stem cells Basement membrane Connective tissue Surface of tongue LM  310 161 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Cuboidal Epithelia Simple cuboidal epithelium Secretion and absorption Stratified cuboidal epithelia Sweat ducts and mammary ducts Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 81  9/16/2024 Figure 4-4a Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Simple Cuboidal Epithelium LOCATIONS: Glands; ducts; portions of kidney tubules; thyroid gland Connective FUNCTIONS: Limited protection, tissue secretion, absorption Nucleus Cuboidal cells Basement membrane Kidney tubule LM  650 163 Figure 4-4b Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of some ducts (rare) FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, Lumen absorption of duct Stratified cuboidal cells Basement membrane Nuclei Connective tissue Sweat gland duct LM  500 164 82  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Transitional Epithelium Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage Appearance changes as stretching occurs (When the surfaces of the cells are stretched, as in a full bladder, the cells appear squamous or flat but when the tissue is relaxed, as in an empty bladder, the layers of cells look ragged like the teeth of a saw). Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder) Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 4-4c Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Transitional Epithelium LOCATIONS: Urinary bladder; renal pelvis; ureters FUNCTIONS: Permits expansion and recoil Epithelium after stretching (relaxed) Basement membrane Connective tissue and smooth muscle layers LM  400 Empty bladder Epithelium (stretched) Basement membrane LM  400 Connective tissue and smooth muscle layers LM  400 Full bladder Urinary bladder 166 83  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Columnar Epithelia Simple columnar epithelium Absorption and secretion Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Cilia movement Stratified columnar epithelium Protection Educate, develop, Train and Mentor Figure 4-5a Columnar Epithelia Simple Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, Microvilli uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys Cytoplasm FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, absorption Nucleus Basement membrane Loose connective tissue LM  350 Intestinal lining 168 84  9/16/2024 Figure 4-5b Columnar Epithelia Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi; portions of male Cilia reproductive tract Cytoplasm FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, move mucus Nuclei with cilia Basement membrane Loose connective tissue Trachea LM  350 169 Figure 4-5c Columnar Epithelia Stratified Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, Loose mammary glands, salivary connective tissue gland ducts, and urethra Deeper basal FUNCTION: Protection cells Superficial columnar cells Lumen Lumen Cytoplasm Nuclei Basement membrane Salivary gland duct LM  175 170 85  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Glandular Epithelia Endocrine glands Release hormones Into interstitial fluid No ducts Exocrine glands Produce secretions Onto epithelial surfaces Through ducts Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Glandular Epithelia Modes of Secretion 1. Merocrine secretion 2. Apocrine secretion 3. Holocrine secretion Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 86  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Merocrine Secretion Produced in Golgi apparatus Released by vesicles (exocytosis) For example, salivary gland Apocrine Secretion Produced in Golgi apparatus Released by shedding cytoplasm For example, mammary glands 173 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Holocrine Secretion Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells Gland cells replaced by stem cells For example, sebaceous glands 174 87  9/16/2024 Figure 4-6a Modes of Glandular Secretion Secretory Salivary gland vesicle Golgi apparatus Nucleus Mammary gland TEM  3039 Merocrine. In merocrine secretion, secretory vesicles are discharged at the apical surface of the gland cell by exocytosis. Hair Sebaceous gland Hair follicle 175 Figure 4-6b Modes of Glandular Secretion Salivary gland Breaks Mammary down gland Golgi apparatus Secretion Regrowth Apocrine. Apocrine secretion involves the loss of apical cytoplasm. Inclusions, Hair secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components are shed in the process. The Sebaceous gland cell then undergoes growth and repair gland before it releases additional secretions. Hair follicle 176 88  9/16/2024 Figure 4-6c Modes of Glandular Secretion Salivary gland Cells burst, releasing cytoplasmic contents Mammary gland Cells produce secretion, increasing in size Cell division replaces lost cells Stem cell Hair Holocrine. Holocrine secretion occurs as superficial gland cells burst. Continued secretion involves the Sebaceous replacement of these cells through the mitotic gland division of underlying stem cells. Hair follicle 177 Figure 4-6 Modes of Glandular Secretion Secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus Nucleus TEM  3039 Salivary gland Breaks Mammary down gland Golgi apparatus Secretion Regrowth Hair Sebaceous Cells burst, releasing gland cytoplasmic contents Hair follicle Cells produce secretion, increasing in size Cell division replaces lost cells Stem cell 178 89  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Classification of glandular epithelia Types of Secretions Serous glands Watery secretions Mucous glands Secrete mucins Mixed exocrine glands Both serous and mucous Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Classification glandular epithelia Gland Structure Unicellular glands Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular exocrine glands Scattered among epithelia For example, in intestinal lining Educate, develop, Train and Mentor 90  9/16/2024 4-3 Classification of Epithelia Gland Structure Multicellular glands 1. Structure of the duct Simple (undivided) Compound (divided) 2. Shape of secretory portion of the gland Tubular (tube shaped) Alveolar or acinar (blind pockets) 3. Relation