Intro to Psych.pdf

Psychology - scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Theories: propose reasons for relationships among observed events. Allows for prediction. Psychology seeks to: describe explain predict control behavior and mental processes A. What Psychologists Do 1. Pure research: studies...

Psychology - scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Theories: propose reasons for relationships among observed events. Allows for prediction. Psychology seeks to: describe explain predict control behavior and mental processes A. What Psychologists Do 1. Pure research: studies conducted without concern for immediate application. 2. Applied research: designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems. 3. Practicing psychology refers to applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behavior. 4. Teaching refers to the sharing of psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and workshops B. Fields of Psychology 1. Clinical psychologist: help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life. Largest subgroup of psychologists. 2. Counseling psychologists: similar to clinical psychologist, but clients typically have adjustment problems and not serious psychological disorders. More than half of all doctoral students are in programs of clinical or counseling. 3. School psychologists: employed by school systems to assist students with problems that interfere with learning. One focus is that of placement of students in special classes. 4. Educational psychologists: like school psychologists, attempt to facilitate learning but focus on course planning, instructional methods. They focus on motivation, intelligence, testing, and student and teacher behavior. 5. Developmental psychologists: study the changes (physical, cognitive, social, and personality) that occur throughout the life span. 6. Personality psychologists: focus on identifying and measuring human traits, determining influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior, and explaining psychological disorders. 7. Social psychologists: primarily concerned with an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations. 8. Environmental psychologists: study the ways in which people and the environment influence one another. 9. Experimental psychologists: conduct experiments and specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. 10. Industrial psychologists: focus on the relationship between people and work. 11. Organizational psychologists focus on the relationship between people and organizations such as business. 12. Human factors psychologists: provide suggestions and create technical systems such as dashboards, computer keyboards, etc., to be more user friendly. 13. Consumer psychologists: study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. 14. Health psychologists: examine the ways in which behavior and mental processes are related to health. 15. Forensic psychologists: apply principles of psychology to the criminal justice system. 16. Sport psychologists: help people improve their performance in various sports. III. Where Psychology Comes From: A History A. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) 1. Argued that human behavior is subject to rules and laws. 2. Subject matter by topic included personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. B. Democritus (c. 400 BCE) 1. Suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and mind (interaction of biological and mental processes). 2. Behavior is influenced by external stimulation. 3. One of the first to raise the question of free will vs. choice Ancient Contributions to Psychology C. Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE) 1. We should rely on rational thought and introspection to achieve self-knowledge. 2. People are social creatures who influence each other. D. Gustav Theodore Fechner (1801-1887) 1. Published his landmark book titled Elements of Psychophysics in 1860, which showed how physical events (light and sounds) are related to psychological sensations and perceptions. E. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 1. Structuralism is the school of thought founded by Wundt and his students; saw the mind as a natural event that could be studied scientifically. 2. Structuralism attempts to break conscious experience down into objective sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings such as emotional responses. They believed that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience. F. William James (1842-1919) 1. Major figure in the development of psychology. 2. James was the founder of functionalism or the idea that in the study of individuals the focus should be on behavior as well as the mind and consciousness. Functionalist look at how experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments. 3. They also turned to the laboratory for direct observation as a way to supplement introspection. 4. James was also influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) theory of evolution; the fittest survive. 5. Functionalists adapted this theory suggesting that adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained. Maladaptive behavior patterns tend to drop out. G. John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) 1. Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior. 2. Watson considered to be the founder of American behaviorism; believed that if psychology wanted to be a science then it must limit itself to observable, measurable events—behavior—and nothing else. 3. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) a. Believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for their actions. Behavior that has a positive outcome will tend to be repeated. b. Demonstrated that laboratory animals can be trained to carry out behaviors through strategic use of reinforcers. c. In principle, human behaviors can be explained in terms of thousands of instances of learning through reinforcement. H. Gestalt Psychology 1. Gestalt psychologists focused on perception and on how perception influences thinking and problem solving. 2. Wertheimer (1880-1943), Koffka (1886-1941), and Kohler (1887-1967); the three founders of Gestalt psychology. 3. Gestalt translates to “pattern” or “organized whole.” 4. Demonstrated that learning is accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition. 5. Much learning can be accomplished by insight, not by mechanical repetition. Perceptions are more than the sums of their parts. 6. Kohler’s research showed that chimpanzees can benefit from “insight.” I. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) 1. Psychoanalysts believe that much of our lives are governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts. 2. Founded by Freud. IV. How Today’s Psychologists View Behavior and Mental Processes A. The Biological Perspective 1. Investigate the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other. 2. Also study the role of heredity in behavior and mental processes. 3. In addition, study how behavior and mental processes have evolved. Evolutionary psychologists use many of Charles Darwin’s principles. B. The Cognitive Perspective 1. Venture into the realm of mental processes to understand human nature. 2. Cognitive psychologists study those things we refer to as the mind. 3. Investigate how we perceive and mentally represent the world. 4. The focus is also on learning, memory, planning, decision-making, language, and problem-solving. C. The Humanistic-Existential Perspective 1. Humanism stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment. 2. Existentialism views people as free to choose and responsible for choosing ethical conduct. 3. Humanistic-existential psychologists stress the importance of subjective experience. This includes self-awareness, experience, and choice, all of which help us to invent ourselves. a. We are free to choose. 4. Abraham Maslow (1970) and Carl Rogers (1951) are two prominent psychologists in this area. D. The Psychodynamic Perspective 1. Freud’s influence continues to be felt, though contemporary psychodynamic theorists would likely call themselves neoanalysts. 2. Famous neoanalysts include Karen Horney (1885-1952) and Erik Erikson (1902-1994). a. Focus less on the unconscious and more on conscious choice and self-direction. E. Perspectives on Learning 1. Study the effects of experience on behavior. 2. Learning is essential in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. 3. Social-cognitive theorists suggest that people can modify or even create their environments. 4. Intentional learning by observing others. 5. Gained influence in the areas of personality, psychological disorders, and psychotherapy. F. The Sociocultural Perspective 1. Addresses the many ways in which people differ from one another. 2. Influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes are studied. Diversity within Psychology a. Ethnicity i. Ethnic groups are united by their cultural heritage, race, language, and common history. ii. Highlight the impact of social, political, and economic factors on human behavior and development. iii. Most well-known African-Americanpsychologists may be Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark. Conducted research exploring the negative effects of school segregation. iv. Latino-American Jorge Sanchez was among the first to show how intelligence tests are culturally biased to the disadvantage of Mexican-American children. v. Latino-American Lillian Comas-Diaz edits journals on multicultural mental health. vi. Asian-American psychologist Richard Suinnstudies mental health and development of identity among Asians and Asian Americans. b. Gender i. Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity. ii. Involves a complex web of cultural expectations and social roles. As with members of ethnic minority groups, women have experienced prejudice, too. iii. Today, women earn most of the undergraduate degrees in psychology and hold 3/4 of the doctoral degrees in the field. iv. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)  Studied at Harvard, completed her degree requirements, but Harvard wouldn’t award her the degree. It was not admitting women. Wanted her to get her diploma from Radcliffe, but she turned the offer down. Pioneer in research in memory: primacy and recency effect. Became president of the APA. v. Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913-1999) Revolutionized our understanding of attachment between parents and children by means of cross-cultural studies. vi. Elizabeth Loftus Memories are not snapshots of the past. Memories are based on ▪ Something old (what actually happened) ▪ Something new (influenced of recent events) ▪ Something borrowed (further shaped by biases and prejudices) ▪ Something blue (altered by emotion) V. How Psychologists Study Behavior and Mental Processes A. Critical Thinking: Sorting Out Truth from Fiction 1. Critical Thinking a. Taking nothing for granted. b. Not believing just because things are in print or were uttered by authority. c. Thoughtfully analyzing and probing questions, statements, and arguments of others. 2. Principles of Critical Thinking a. Be skeptical. b. Insist on evidence. c. Examine definitions of terms. d. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments. e. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. f. Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence. g. Do not oversimplify. h. Do not overgeneralize. i. Apply critical thinking to all areas of life. B. The Scientific Method: Putting Ideas to the Test 1. Scientific method is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas in order to expand and refine knowledge. 2. Begin by formulating a research question. 3. Hypothesis: a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research. 4. Test the hypothesis through controlled methods such as the experiment. 5. Try not to confuse correlations (association) with cause and effect. 6. Selection factor is a source of bias that may occur when subjects are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study. C. Samples and Populations 1. Samples must be drawn so that they accurately represent the population. This allows for generalization or extending results from samples to populations. 2. Individuals who are studied are referred to as a sample. A sample is a segment of the population. The population is the group targeted for study. D. Problems in Generalizing from Psychological Research 1. Many factors must be considered in interpreting the accuracy of results of scientific research. a. Random and stratified sampling i. Random sample: each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate. ii. Stratified sample: selection is made so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample. iii. Volunteer bias: people who volunteer as participants differ systematically from people who do not. E. Methods of Observation 1. The Case Study a. Information collected about individuals and small groups. b. Typically unscientific accounts of people’s behavior referred to as anecdotes. c. Provide compelling portraits but may have factual inaccuracies. i. People’s memories have gaps (Loftus, 2004). ii. Interviewers may have expectations. 2. The Survey a. Used to study individuals who cannot be observed in the natural setting or studied scientifically. b. Employs questionnaires and interviews. Also uses the examination of public records. c. Famous Kinsey survey results: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). d. Also have sources of inaccuracy. May recall memories with inaccuracies, they may lie, may respond in a good light, or try to anticipate what the researcher wants them to say. e. May also have the inaccuracy of social desirability; subjects tell the interviewer what they think the interviewer wants to hear (a problem in case study as well). 3. Naturalistic Observation a. Observe people in their natural habitats. b. Unobtrusive measures are used to avoid interfering with the behaviors that are being observed. c. Jane Goodall observed the behavior of chimpanzees in their natural environment. F. Correlation 1. Investigates whether one observed behavior or trait is related to (correlated) with another. 2. Positive correlation: the higher scores on one variable tend to correspond with higher scores on the second variable. Low with low (e.g., intelligence test scores and academic performance). 3. Negative correlation: higher scores on one variable tend to correspond with lower scores on the second (e.g., amount of experience stress and functioning of the immune system). 4. Correlational studies may suggest but do not prove cause and effect. G. The Experimental Method 1. The preferred method for answering questions about cause and effect. a. Allows psychologists to control the experiences of subjects and draw conclusions about cause and effect. b. Independent and dependent variables i. Independent variable: manipulated by experimenters so that the effects of various levels may be determined. ii. Dependent variable: the measured outcome or result. c. Experimental and control groups i. Experimental groups obtain the treatment. ii. Control groups do not receive the treatment. d. Blind and double blinds i. Placebo: fake treatment or “sugar pill.” ii. Blind: control for the expectations of effects by creating conditions where the subjects are unaware of the treatment. iii. Double blind: neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who has obtained the treatment. H. Ethics of Research with Humans 1. Intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. 2. Do not undertake research methods that are harmful. 3. Ethics review committees are found in colleges, hospitals, etc., to help researchers consider the potential harm of their methods. Review research according to ethical guidelines. 4. Informed consent: individuals give consent before they can participate in research. 5. Confidentiality is kept. 6. Subjects are debriefed if deception is used. I. Ethics of Research with Animals 1. Psychologists use animals to conduct research that cannot be carried out with humans (effects of early separation from mother). 2. Psychologists generalize to humans the results of research conducted with animals. 3. Animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative and researchers believe that the benefits of the research justify the harm.