Intro to Comparative Politics PDF

9/25 Politics Politics is process of making collective decisions in community, society, or group through power Politics is struggle for authority to make decisions that will affect the public What is Power? Capacity to bring intended effects through peaceful or violent means Soft vs...

9/25 Politics Politics is process of making collective decisions in community, society, or group through power Politics is struggle for authority to make decisions that will affect the public What is Power? Capacity to bring intended effects through peaceful or violent means Soft vs. Hard Power Soft Power is Love, Hard Power is Fear Government Institutions and offices which societies are governed by. Used to describe the people that make the decisions Governance Process by which decisions, laws, and polices are made with or without government Concept Term, idea, or category, such as ‘democracy’ or ‘power’ with definition restricted to inherent characteristics Authority and Legitimacy Authority creates its own power, as long as people accept that authority figure has the right to make decisions Legitimate government is one based on authority and its subject accepting its right to make decisions Identifying 3 Sources of Legitimacy (Max Weber) Pre-Modern 1. Tradition a. Transferring legitimacy through the traditional means such as family 2. Charisma a. Very personal, hard to transfer legitimacy to another ruler through charisma Modern 3. Rational/Legality a. Legitimacy comes from following rules of government, whether through election or appointment Political Science Subfields American Politics Involves studying politics in the United States at Federal, State, and Local levels Examines Political Theory Examines ideas, principles, concepts, norms, and assumptions that inform and shape governance and political interactions Political theorists analyze essential concepts in politics. Including democracy, freedom, liberty, resistance, equality, revolution, and power, to name a few. International Relations Seeks to understand the interactions between states, nations, international organizations, non-state actors, transnational movements or terrorist networks, and individuals in the global system. Focuses on issues that Comparative Politics Uses method of comparison to examine political activities (Government and non-governmental organizations and operations) and political phenomena within individual countries Also examine the same cases across various points in time Focus is on country’s internal politics, with view to making generalizations about politics in variety of domestic settings Compares domestic experiences of countries with domestic experiences of others or it may compare experiences of one part with another Advantage of Comparison Can help us understand ourselves Can broaden policy options Can broaden our horizon Can help draw up general rules about politics Typology System of classification where states, institutions, processes, political cultures, etc are divided into groups or types of governments with common attributes Aristotle’s Typology of Regimes Number of Rulers Correct Deviant One Monarchy Tyranny Few Aristocracy Oligarchy/Plutocracy Many Direct Democracy Anarchy Ideology System of connected beliefs, a shared view of the world, or blueprint for how politics, economics, and society should be structured Filter that adherents use to interpret events, explain human behavior, and justify political action Liberalism Emerged in reaction to feudalism, shifting power from landowners to businesses and individuals, liberalism roots in the ideas of viewing humans as good-natured beings, focuses on the individual, consent of being governed, freedoms of rights (speech, due process, market, equality, and such). The result of such freedoms means that liberalism accepts the idea of economic inequality and limited government but upholds political equality. Separation of Religion and State were a big part of liberalism. Individualism and Universalism were the root ideologies of liberalism  ○ In feudalism, power is determined by a pyramidical scale determined by land ownership and those living in feudalism are ascribed status (meaning individual wealth or power status rarely changes). Religious conformity was also often a big part of feudalism. ○ The Industrial Revolution was a blow to feudalism, because of the emerging working class and distribution of wealth to industrialists. Ownership of power moves away from ownership of land and rather to ownership to industries. Liberalism’s economic attitude in North America is Conservative, the role of the market is paramount. This leads to the flaw of inequality Conservatism Emerged in response to liberalism, instead of viewing humans as good-natured, it views humans as selfish. The ideas in conservatism are upholding traditional values and institutions. Conservatism is meant to uphold community, stability, and law and order. Whilst it believes in protection of private property like liberalism, it is wary of free markets, worried that free markets would destroy the economy. Conservatism supports traditional authority of religion and traditional values. Nationalism is a root ideology of conservatism Social Democracy Emerged in response to liberalism, meant to set limits to free markets and limit freedoms of corporations and regulations to the free market. Social democracy focuses on the reform of capitalism and doesn’t seek to overthrow capitalism. Essentially liberalism but with more governmental involvement in the markets. Social Democracy balances personal freedoms, regulating markets, and providing for the public. Social Democracy economic attitude in North America is Liberal Mercantilism Mercantilism is the belief that accumulating wealth is the way to a better economy and power through the balance of trade, typically being exports exceeding imports Mercantilist states seek power by ○ Directing the economy toward industries and away from others through subsidies and taxation ○ Through partial or full state ownership of industries that are considered critical ○ With the strong use of tariffs, non tariff barriers, and other regulations ○ By limiting social expenditures and keeping taxation to a minimum ○ With low interest rates set by the central bank to encourage borrowing and investment Imperialism/Colonialism Imperialism is when a state extends its power beyond its borders to control other territories and peoples Imperialism was propagated by European powers from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries Imperialism often led to colonialism, the physical occupation of foreign territories Motivations for imperialism/colonialism ○ The subordinate state can provide resources, both human and physical, for the dominant state ○ The subordinate state can be a controlled market for the dominant state ○ The subordinate state can serve important strategic functions, e.g., as a staging area for the dominant state’s political or military objectives Forms of colonial domination ○ Segregationist style (e.g., Belgian Congo) The exploitation by the dominant state is explicit There is little or no attempt to improve economic, political, or social systems in the subordinate state  ○ Assimilationist style (e.g. many French colonies) There is some attempt to transform the subordinate state into an extension of the dominant state While the subordinate state is still being exploited, the institutions, knowledge, and culture of the dominant state are introduced to the elite of the subordinate state and become a basis for political, economic, and cultural development ○ Indirect rule (e.g. British rule in Northern Nigeria and parts of India) The dominant state uses the traditional leaders and institutions of governance and culture in the subordinate state as intermediaries in its control However, it also introduce the modern form of the dominant state Political and Social Institutions of Imperialism/Colonialism The modern state, as a form of political organization, was imposed on much of the world outside of Europe. Ethnic and national identities were create where none had existed prior to colonization Economic Institutions of Imperialism/Colonialism Traditional agricultural economies were transformed to suit the needs of the imperialist power Free trade was often suppressed as the colonies were forces to supply goods only to the imperial country, creating extractive economies in the colonies Socialism/Communism Socialism/Communism sought the abolition of capitalism and private property as K. Marx thought the ownership of private property would inevitably lead to problems. Soc/Com would seek to give the working class the ownership of the means of production and have a classless society as the result. Soc/Com is meant to be a community based  government. Communism emphasizes the limit of personal freedoms and a strong state to achieve social equality. Fascism Emerged in response to liberalism, fascism sees the individual not as one, but as a part of the state/nation. Fascism would have a ‘leader’ that would lead the nation to greatness. The state takes the lead in its economics (autarky) and government decisions as part of its very protectionist government. Fascism stresses a low degree of personal freedoms and equality to achieve peak power for the state. Relationship between Classical Ideologues and Modern U.S. Ideologies Classical Liberalism is a huge influence in today’s modern U.S. ideologies. Classical Liberalism has roots in both U.S. liberals and U.S. Conservatives. Classical Liberalism and Social Democracy ideologies are roots in U.S. Liberals Classical Liberalism and Classical Conservatism ideologies are roots in the U.S. Conservatives Stages in the Evolution of Political Analysis 1. Classical Theories (Until the 1880s) a. What should society look like? b. Popular political analysts were: i. Plato ii. Aristotle iii. 2. Traditional Political Analysis (1880-1945) a. Historical and legal scholars analyze the political theories and emphasize describing political systems  b. The geopolitical results of the end World War II had the growth of communism and political freedoms around the world because of the expansion of capitalism 3. Behavioral Revolution (1945-1960s) a. The growth of scientific approach to political analysis, to emphasize causality, explanation, and prediction b. Places emphasis on political behavior of individuals instead of the larger political structures, and on quantitative over qualitative methodology c. Search for grand theory of politics 4. Contemporary Political Analysis (1960s-Today) a. Rejection of grand theory of politics b. Diversify political theories and methods c. Resurgence of normative political analysis d. Neo-Marxist theories e. Feminist theories f. Interdisciplinary research g. Rational choice theories h. New institutionalism i. Public policy theories Two Approaches to the Study of Politics Normative approach concerns itself with political values and with optimal standards of political organization behavior. In the process, it often asks us to make value judgments. ○ The normative approach is seen as the ‘what ought to be’ approach to political theory. It focuses on looking at how the world should be and the exploration of values and what should be done upon those values. Empirical analysis is centered on facts. Seeks to discover, describe, and explain facts and factual relationships, to the extent that the facts are knowable ○ Empirical theory is the ‘what is’ of political theory. Focused on the facts and historical events to reach a hypothesis of political theory. Empirical Analysis Qualitative Method ○ Mastery of a limited number of cases through the detailed study of their history, language, and culture. Emphasis on depth over breadth. ○ Quality over Quantity Quantitative Method ○ Gathering of statistical data across a large number of cases in order to look for relationships and test hypotheses about cause and effect. Emphasis on breadth over depth ○ Quantity over Quality Variables The dependent variable is the object of our study we are most interested in explaining. It is the effect or outcome that is influenced or caused by another variable or variables. The independent variable is the factor that influences or causes the dependent variable. Changes in the value of the independent variable may produce changes in the value of the dependent variable. Hypothesis Is an assumption or supposition that needs to be tested against relevant evidence Usually posits a cause-and-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables Correlation A correlation (association) indicates a connection between our independent variable(s) and our dependent variable It is a relationship in which two or more variables change together Positive Correlation: ○ Shows that as one variable increases, the other increases Negative Correlation  ○ Shows that as one variable increases, the other decreases No Correlation ○ There is no connection between the two variables Spurious Correlation ○ Two or more variables that are associated, either by coincidence or an unseen, unmeasured third variable Theory A theory is a general explanation of empirical phenomena It aims to explain more than just a few cases and is backed by a considerable number of supporting facts as empirical evidence It seeks to explain, and perhaps predict, relationships among variables Two Research Approaches Inductive approaches move from data to theory: we begin by observing the world and from our observations develop generalizations and conclusions Deductive theorizing moves the other way, from the general to the specific. We are engaging in deductive research when we begin with specific assumptions, or hypotheses , and set out to test them in the real world. If the evidence confirms our hypothesis, then our theory is supported Objectives of Comparative Politics 1. Contextual Description 2. Classification 3. Hypothesis Testing 4. Prediction Four Ways to do Empirical Studies 1. The Case Study Method a. Involves the intensive study of a single case with wider significance b. Case studies run the gamut from the most microcosmic to the most macrocosmic levels of political phenomena 2. The Comparative Method a. Focus upon a particular political structure or behavior and examine it in a comparative perspective. We look for similarities and differences in a few cases b. May do our comparison in one setting but compare across time i. diachronic comparison c. May compare institutions and behavior at one point in time but compare across national borders i. Synchronic comparison d. The most similar systems design: i. Cases are intentionally selected in order to establish control ii. We take cases that are, for the most part, similar, and study differences that exist between them iii. If different outcomes are found between similar cases, then we can explain the differences with reference to the factor(s) that these cases do not have in common e. The most different systems design: i. Cases are intentionally selected in order to establish control ii. We select cases to compare that are not similar iii. Instead of looking 3. The Statistical Method a. Involves the quantitative assessment of the impact of variables. It involves the use of a large number of cases. b. Public opinion polls, survey research, and various other forms of quantitative techniques are used to help make the measurement and observation even more accurate  4. The Experiment Approach a. Involves manipulating one (independent) variable in order to observe its effects upon another dependent variable. It takes place in a highly controlled setting Levels of Analysis The individual level (focuses on individuals) The aggregate Problems of Overgeneralization The Ecological Fallacy ○ This occurs when an individual takes an observation made at the general level, over a large population, and assumes it can be validly applied to every individual within that population The Individualistic Fallacy ○ The individualistic fallacy is the reverse of ecological fallacy. It occurs when we make an individual-level observation, and incorrectly Errors of Over Assumption It is entirely possible that we will find in our research two institutions, or patterns of behavior, in two different settings that look alike but that perform entirely different functions in their respective settings. The opposite of this is true, too. We might find two entirely different structures in two different nations that perform similar or identical functions Political Ethnocentrism It involves the assumption that because political institutions Nation, State, and Nation State The concept of nation denotes a group of people with shared characteristics, e.g., a shared language, history, or culture.  A state is a political entity, created by human beings, based upon accepted boundaries, and alterable human beings A nation-state involves instances in which the nation and the state overlap, where the unit that is found on the map corresponds to a meaningful use of the term nation State and Government A state is defined by a set of ongoing institutions that develops and administers laws and generates and implements public policies in a specific territory A government is transient. The State The monopoly of force over a given territory (with clearly defined borders and containing a population) A set of political institutions (and bureaucratic apparatus) to generate and carry out policy An entity with external (internationally recognized as the sole legitimate governing authority within its territory and as the legal equal of other states) and internal (it is the sole authority within its territory capable of making and enforcing laws and policies) sovereignty. De Facto State A de-facto state is a state that has all the attributes of a state but lacks external sovereignty. It is not internationally recognized. Examples; ○ Transmistra ○ Northern Cyprus ○ Abkhazia ○ Taiwan Quasi State A quasi state is a state that has all the attributes of a state but lacks internal sovereignty. It does not have control over its own state Examples ○ Somalia ○ Haiti ○ Syria Political Development - State/Nation Building The Crisis of Identity ○ Does the population identify with its state? The Crisis of Legitimacy ○ Does the government have authority and is the population subject to its rule? The Crisis of Penetration ○ Does the government control most of its state? Are they able to create and enact policy? Do they have internal sovereignty? The Crisis of Participation ○ Is the population participating too little, such as not voting in important elections? Are they participating too much? Constant protest and civil unrest? The Crisis of Distribution ○ Is the government able to adequately supply services to its population? Goods, services, supplies? Three Types of States Effective State The state controls the national territory and the borders and has sufficient domestic penetration to ensure that national laws and policies are in effect throughout the country To this end, there are effective institutions Examples:  ○ The United States ○ United Kingdom ○ China ○ Canada Fragile/Weak State The state cannot provide adequate political goods Individual state actors may well arbitrarily act to enrich themselves personally rather than follow any legal obligations Examples: ○ Ukraine ○ Argentina (High end) ○ Mexico (High end) ○ Afghanistan (Low end) ○ Ethiopia ○ Iraq ○ North Korea (High end) Failed State A state that is not able to impose national policies throughout its territory. Its effect may be limited to the capital. Elsewhere, it lacks a presence; or what presence it has is seen as illegitimate and ignored Examples: ○ Somalia (close to collapse) Collapsed State There is no state authority, but rather anarchy, multi-actor civil war Influencing Trade Tariffs are basically taxes on imported goods Quotas are ways to limit the quantity of a good coming into the country Other non tariff barriers may create wealth, packaging, or other restrictions, whose purpose is to protect citizens nut also make it difficult to be traded Challenges to Building State Capacity in Less-Developed Cities Absence of professional bureaucracy (following departure of foreign imperial bureaucrats) Clientelism, rent-seeking, and corruption in the handling of state jobs and revenue Sovereignty often compromised by external actors (other states, transnational corporations, international organizations) Challenges to Building a Unified Country Arbitrary political boundaries imposed by imperial powers Ethnic and religious divisions among different groups in heterogeneous societies (often exacerbated by economic inequality Three Paths to Economic Growth: Import Substitution Based on mercantilism States plays a strong role in the economy Tariffs or non-tariff barriers are used to restrict import  State actively promotes domestic production, sometimes creating state-owned businesses in developing industries Criticized for creating “hothouse economies,” with large industries reliant on the state for support and unable to compete in the international market Export-Oriented Industrialization Based on mercantilism State plays a strong role in the economy Tariff barriers are used to protect domestic industries Economic production is focused on industries that have a niche in the international market Seeks to integrate directly into the global economy Has generally led to a higher level of economic development than import substitution Structural Adjustment Based on liberalism State involvement is reduced as the economy is opened up Foreign investment is encouraged Often followed import substitution Criticized as a tool of neocolonialism and for its failure in many cases to bring substantial economic development Prospects for Democracy and Development Building State Capacity Supporting civil society ○ Organized citizen activity outside the state Promoting Economic Prosperity Long-Term Development Requires Infrastructure ○ Efficient transportation and communication systems Human Capital ○ An educated and healthy population/workforce Strong Institutions ○ Clear property rights, enforcement of contracts, Rule of Law Classification of Regimes Democracies (Liberal Democracy) ○ Democracy gives the people the ability to vote, elections ○ Liberal Democracy adds civil rights to democracy, protections and political equality, ensures minority rights Semi-authoritarianisim (Illiberal democracy) Authoritarian Dictatorships Totalitarian Regimes ○ Fascist ○ Communist Characteristics of a Democratic Regime 1. Responsible Government Political Decisions are taken in a reasonably transparent way by elected official who are thus directly or ultimately accountable to the the electorate and not to a tutelary actor (e.g. military) Governments are thus never overthrown nor forced out of office by such tutelary actors There is a full civilian executive control over the military  2. Free and Fair Competition for Political Office Elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed in free, fair, and relatively frequent elections with minimal or ideally no coercion of voters. Political parties can freely form and compete in elections 3. Full and Equal Rights of Political Participation Practically all adults have the right to vote There is only one vote per person Likewise, most adults have the right to run for office 4. Full Civil Liberties There is freedom of expression, including the right to criticize public officials and governmental policies There is freedom of the press, with various alternative, non-governmental sources of information There is freedom of organization (into autonomous groups) There is freedom of religion 5. A Well-Functioning State, with Effective and Fair Governance The state, i.e., the political-bureaucratic system, penetrates effectively and more or less evenly throughout the country The rule of law clearly exists and is upheld by an independent, unbiased judiciary Political and bureaucratic corruption is minimal or ideally non-existent Types of Democracy Representative Democracy Direct Democracy Vocabulary Class Consciousness Marxism Autarky Egalitarian Society Neo-Marxism Normative Political Analysis Rational Choice Theory New Institutionalism ○ Neo-Institutionalist Theory ○ Institutionalism Interdisciplinary Research Pluralism Corporatism Statism Important People Max Weber Aristotle Plato Martin Luther John Locke Adam Smith Karl Marx Vladimir Lenin Edmund Burke Eduard Bernstein Mao Zedong