Introduction to Psychology PDF

UNIT 1: BASIC What is psychology? Psychology is a science that seeks to answer such questions about us as how and why we think, feel, and act as we do. The study of mind and behavior Its use as an EMPIRICAL APPROACH The term “psychology” originates from the Greek words psyche (soul)...

UNIT 1: BASIC What is psychology? Psychology is a science that seeks to answer such questions about us as how and why we think, feel, and act as we do. The study of mind and behavior Its use as an EMPIRICAL APPROACH The term “psychology” originates from the Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (study). Is psychology a science? Psychology is a science because it employs systematic observation, experimentation, and data analysis to understand and predict behavior and mental processes, grounded in empirical evidence and subjected to peer review. The science of behavior and mental processes An evidence-based method that draws on observation The scientific attitude: The scientific attitude as analyzed and described includes the following habits of thinking: habit of accuracy in all operations, including accuracy in calculation, observation, and report; habit of intellectual honesty; habit of open-mindedness; habit of suspended judgment; habit of looking for true cause-and-effect relationships; and habit of criticalness, including that of self-criticism. CURIOUSITY: Does it work? SKEPTICISM: What do you mean? How do you know? HUMILITY: That's what was unexpected. Let's explore the future. Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyze, interpret, evaluate, and make a judgment about what you read, hear, say, or write. The scientific thinking—curiosity + skepticism + humility—prepares Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions Parts of critical thinking: - evaluating evidence - assessing the source - assessing conclusions - examining our own assumptions Structuralism Structuralism is an intellectual current and methodological approach, primarily in the social sciences, that interprets elements of human culture by way of their relationship to a broader system. Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind Functionalism  Functionalism is a theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc.—serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society. To explore the mind's memories, willpower, habits, and moments to movement streams of consciousness. Psychological science Psychological science is the use of the scientific method to create, test, and improve hypotheses concerning behavior and the factors and processes underlying behavior. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. Freudian Psychology Freudian theory assumes that the unconscious exists and that a great deal of mental functioning occurs outside of conscious awareness. The unconscious cannot be observed directly but can be inferred from the powerful influence it often has on consciousness and observable behavior. Humanistic psychology a movement in psychology supporting the belief that humans, as individuals, are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as such by psychologists and psychiatrists. Contemporary psychology Contemporary theory is defined as a perspective in developmental understanding that emphasizes systemic change and relative plasticity across the lifespan, acknowledging the potential for change while recognizing constraints imposed by past developments and current contextual conditions. Maslow's motivation theory Maslow's motivation theory, commonly known as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, is a psychological framework that categorizes human needs into a five-tier model. Developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, this theory posits that individuals are motivated to fulfill their needs in a hierarchical order, progressing from basic physiological needs to more complex psychological needs. The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological Needs: These are the most fundamental human requirements essential for survival, including food, water, warmth, rest, and shelter. According to Maslow, these needs must be met before individuals can focus on higher-level needs.  Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are satisfied, individuals seek safety and security. This includes physical safety (protection from harm), financial security (job stability), and health security (access to healthcare). Social Needs: Also referred to as belongingness and love needs, this level emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships. Humans have an intrinsic desire for emotional connections, friendships, family bonds, and social acceptance. Esteem Needs: At this level, individuals seek recognition and respect from others as well as self-esteem. Esteem needs can be categorized into two types: the need for respect from others (status and recognition) and the need for self-respect (confidence and achievement). Self-Actualization: This is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy, where individuals strive to realize their full potential and pursue personal growth. Self-actualization involves engaging in creative activities, seeking personal development, and achieving one's goals. Hindsight bias The hindsight bias involves the tendency people have to assume that they knew the outcome of an event after the outcome has already been determined. For example, after attending a baseball game, you might insist that you knew that the winning team was going to win beforehand. Overconfidence Overconfidence bias is the tendency to overestimate our knowledge and abilities in a certain area. The scientific methods The scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), predicting the logical consequences of hypotheses, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. Constructing theories: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observation and predicts behaviors or events Description: Case study, naturalistic observation, survey, random sample, and sample bias. Correlation: A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. - Correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things that helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate - Variable: anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.  - Positive correlation: A positive correlation is a relationship between two variables that move in tandem—that is, in the same direction. - Negative Correlation: A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions. - Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship. Experimentation is a research method in which an investigation manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental. - experiment group - control group - random assignment - independent variable: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulating the variable whose effect is being studied. - confounding variable: in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the study results. - dependent variable: in an experiment, the outcome that is measured is the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. - double-blind procedure: neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the drug or the placebo. - placebo effect: The placebo effect is when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment. UNIT 2: NATURE VS NURTURE Behavior geneticists Behavioral geneticists study how individual differences arise in the present through the interaction of genes and the environment. Heredity Heredity is the process in which traits are passed down genetically from one generation to the next. Environment A person's social environment is their society and all surroundings influenced in some way by humans. It includes all relationships, institutions, culture, and physical structures. Twins One fertilised egg (ovum) splits and develops into two babies with exactly the same genetic information. Monozygotic twins: twins conceived from one egg and one sperm Fraternal twins: the fertilization of two separate eggs with two different sperm during the same pregnancy. Biological relatives A person related by descent rather than by marriage or law. Adoptive relatives a family that raises a child who is not biologically related to them. Parenting Parenting practices around the world share three major goals: ensuring children's health and safety, preparing children for life as productive adults, and transmitting cultural values Child Abuse Child abuse is not just physical violence directed at a child. It is any form of maltreatment by an adult that is violent or threatening for the child. This includes neglect. Adopted Child An adopted child has been legally taken by another family to be taken care of as their own child Temperment an aspect of personality concerned with emotional dispositions and reactions and their speed and intensity Heritability a measure of how well differences in people's genes account for differences in their traits Gender the male sex or the female sex, especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones, or one of a range of other identities that do not correspond to established ideas of male and female. Sex Sex is a biological descriptor based on reproductive, hormonal, anatomical, and genetic characteristics. Parental innvesment theory the sex that is physiologically required to invest more in offspring evolves to be more choosy regarding mates because a mating error (mating with a low-quality or noninvesting partner) is more costly to that sex Social learning theory Behaviors are learned through observation and imitation of other people's behavior. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid ) the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder—a shape known as a double helix. Chromosomes thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells Molecular genetics a field of biology that studies the structure and functions of genes at a molecular level and their influence in determining the overall makeup of an organism. Epigenetics the study of heritable and stable changes in gene expression that occur through alterations in the chromosome rather than in the DNA sequence. Evolutionary Theory The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time. Evolution relies on there being genetic variation in a population that affects the physical characteristics (phenotype) of an organism. Mutation a change in the sequence of an organism's DNA. Mutations can be caused by high-energy sources such as radiation or by chemicals in the environment. Social scripts a set of actions that are previously expected by an individual in certain circumstances or contexts. Culture the values, beliefs, language, rituals, traditions, and other behaviors that are passed from one generation to another within any social group. Norms a set standard of development or achievement usually derived from the average or median achievement of a large group. Individualism the concept that a state of mind is an entity to which the viewpoint of a psychological theory can be applied. Collectivism a worldview in which social behavior is guided largely by goals that are shared by a collective, such as a family, tribe, work group, or political or religious association. Aggression any behavior or act aimed at harming a person or animal or damaging physical property. Relational aggression as behaviors that damage social relationships, such as spreading malicious rumors, gossip, secrets, or lies, peer exclusion, threatening to end a social relationship, or harming others through purposeful manipulation. Marriage the process by which two people make their relationship public, official, and permanent. Gender Development  Children learn at a young age that there are distinct behaviors and activities deemed appropriate for boys and for girls. These roles are acquired through socialization, a process through which children learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes. Gender typing the process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they identify as their own. Transgender people whose gender identity is different from the gender they were thought to be when they were born. Klinefelter syndrome a common genetic condition in which people assigned male at birth (AMAB) have an additional X chromosome. Turner syndrome a chromosomal condition that affects development in people who are assigned female at birth. Females typically have two X chromosomes, but in individuals with Turner syndrome, one copy of the X chromosome is missing or altered. Sexual harassment a form of vexatious behaviour that involves repeated hostile and unwanted words, behaviour, or actions that are painful, hurtful, annoying, humiliating, or insulting. Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences Key Terms and Concepts Behavior Genetics: Examines the influence of heredity and environment on behavior. Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes. Environment: Includes all external influences, from prenatal nutrition to social factors. Genes: Our Codes for Life Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made of DNA that house genes. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecular structure carrying genetic information. Genes: Segments of DNA responsible for protein synthesis, influencing development. Genome: The complete set of instructions for building an organism. Key Insights Humans share 99.9% of DNA with each other, highlighting our genetic similarity. Small differences in genetic sequences account for diversity. Genes can be turned "on" or "off" by environmental triggers. Twin and Adoption Studies 1. Types of Twins: ○ Identical Twins (Monozygotic): Originate from a single fertilized egg; genetically identical. ○ Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic): Develop from two separate fertilized eggs; share 50% of genes like siblings. 2. Findings: ○ Identical twins are more similar in traits like personality than fraternal twins. ○ Studies of separated twins reveal the strong influence of genetics on behavior. ○ Adopted children’s personalities often align more with biological parents, but values and attitudes are shaped by adoptive environments. Temperament Definition: An individual’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. Stability: Temperament remains consistent across life stages. Influence: Largely genetic; for instance, highly reactive infants often become anxious adults. Heritability Definition: The proportion of variation among individuals attributable to genetic differences. Key Understanding: ○ Heritability applies to groups, not individuals. ○ Example: If environments are equalized, heritability increases because differences arise mainly from genetics. Gene-Environment Interaction Interaction: Genes and environment influence each other. ○ Example: A predisposition to anxiety might only manifest under stress. Adaptation: Environmental factors can activate or suppress genetic traits (e.g., calluses form when walking barefoot). Evolutionary Psychology: Explaining Human Nature and Nurture Natural Selection Definition: Inherited traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common over generations. Example: Traits like fear of predators or a preference for high-calorie foods evolved to ensure survival. Behavior Tendencies Humans share universal behaviors like forming social groups, experiencing fear, and nurturing offspring. Genes and environment together shape behaviors, allowing adaptation to diverse conditions. Sexuality and Mating Preferences 1. Gender Differences: ○ Men are generally more willing to engage in casual sex and prioritize physical attractiveness. ○ Women are often more selective, valuing stability, resources, and long-term commitment. 2. Evolutionary Explanation: ○ Women’s higher investment in reproduction (e.g., pregnancy) leads to choosier mate selection. ○ Men’s strategies focus on spreading genes widely. 3. Criticisms: ○ Overemphasis on genetic determinism. ○ Neglect of cultural and individual differences. ○ Potential reinforcement of harmful stereotypes. Cultural and Gender Diversity Experience and Development Role of Environment: ○ Early enriched environments promote brain development.  ○ Examples: Rosenzweig’s rat experiments showed thicker cortices in rats raised in stimulating conditions. Plasticity: ○ Neural pathways strengthen with use and weaken when unused (pruning). ○ Early experiences (e.g., language exposure) have lasting effects. Parenting and Peer Influence 1. Parenting: ○ Parents influence values, manners, and beliefs but have limited impact on personality. ○ Extreme parenting (abuse or neglect) can lead to significant developmental differences. 2. Peers: ○ Peers significantly influence language, behaviors, and social norms during adolescence. ○ Example: Children adopt peer accents over parental accents. Cultural Norms Definition: Shared rules for accepted and expected behavior. Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures: ○ Individualist: Emphasize independence and self-expression. ○ Collectivist: Prioritize group goals and harmony. Gender Roles Definition: Cultural expectations for behaviors based on gender. Formation: ○ Influenced by biology (e.g., hormones) and socialization. ○ Social learning shapes gender-specific behaviors through observation and imitation. Molecular Behavior Genetics and Epigenetics Molecular Genetics Focus: Studies specific genes and their influence on behavior. Application: Identifies genes associated with conditions like depression or obesity. Epigenetics Definition: Study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without changing DNA. Mechanisms: ○ Epigenetic markers can turn genes on or off. ○ Example: Childhood trauma can leave lasting genetic marks affecting stress responses. Reflection on Nature and Nurture Interdependence: ○ Nature (genes) sets the potential; nurture (environment) shapes its expression. Practical Implications: ○ Understanding genetic and environmental contributions can inform interventions (e.g., stress management). UNIT 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Basic Concepts of Sensation and Perception Sensation vs. Perception Sensation: The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and represent stimuli from the environment. Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory input, enabling recognition of meaningful objects and events. Processing Sensory Information 1. Bottom-Up Processing: Information starts at sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing. ○ Example: Detecting lines, angles, and colors in a painting. 2. Top-Down Processing: Constructs perceptions by drawing on prior experiences and expectations. ○ Example: Interpreting a blurry image as a familiar face based on past encounters. Stages of Sensory Processing 1. Reception: Sensory receptor cells detect stimuli (light, sound, heat). 2. Transduction: Conversion of stimulus energies (e.g., light waves, sound waves) into neural signals. 3. Delivery: Neural signals are transmitted to the brain for processing. Thresholds Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of stimulus energy required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. ○ Example: Hearing a watch ticking 20 feet away in a quiet room. Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli 50% of the time. ○ Example: Detecting a slight increase in the brightness of a light. Weber's Law: To perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage, not a fixed amount. ○ Example: Detecting a 2% difference in weight between two objects. Subliminal Stimuli: Stimuli below the absolute threshold of conscious awareness, which can prime responses without being consciously perceived. Sensory Adaptation Definition: Diminished sensitivity to constant, unchanging stimuli. ○ Example: Becoming unaware of a strong perfume after a few minutes. Function: Frees attention for detecting changes in the environment, which are often more important for survival. Perceptual Set Definition: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing rather than another. Influenced by: ○ Experiences: Familiarity shapes expectations. ○ Context: Surrounding information influences interpretation.  ○ Motivation and Emotion: Hunger might make ambiguous shapes resemble food. Vision: Sensory and Perceptual Processing Light Energy Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to humans, ranging from violet (short wavelength) to red (long wavelength). Wavelength: Determines hue (color). Intensity: Determines brightness. The Eye 1. Cornea: Bends incoming light for focusing. 2. Pupil: Adjustable opening regulated by the iris to control light entry. 3. Lens: Changes shape (accommodation) to focus light on the retina. 4. Retina: Contains photoreceptors: ○ Rods: Sensitive to low light and movement; important for night vision. ○ Cones: Sensitive to color and fine detail; clustered in the fovea. 5. Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain. ○ Creates a blind spot where it exits the eye. Color Vision 1. Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: ○ Retina has three types of color receptors: red, green, and blue. ○ Combinations of these receptor activations create the perception of other colors. 2. Opponent-Process Theory: ○ Opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. ○ Explains afterimages (e.g., seeing green after staring at red). 3. Complementarity: ○ Trichromatic theory explains cone-level processing. ○ Opponent-process theory explains further processing in the retina, thalamus, and visual cortex. Feature Detection and Parallel Processing Feature Detectors: Specialized neurons in the occipital lobe respond to specific features like edges, angles, and movement. Parallel Processing: The brain simultaneously processes motion, form, depth, and color to construct a cohesive visual perception. Perceptual Organization Gestalt Principles: Emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 1. Figure-Ground: Differentiating objects from their background. 2. Grouping Rules: Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together. Continuity: Perceiving continuous patterns. Closure: Filling in gaps to create a complete object. Depth Perception Binocular Cues: ○ Retinal Disparity: The brain computes distance by comparing images from both eyes. ○ Convergence: Eye muscle strain when focusing on close objects. Monocular Cues: ○ Relative Size: Smaller objects appear farther away. ○ Interposition: Overlapping objects indicate depth. The Nonvisual Senses Hearing (Audition) Sound Waves: Vibrations of air molecules; characterized by frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness). The Ear: ○ Outer Ear: Channels sound waves to the eardrum. ○ Middle Ear: Amplifies vibrations via three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup). ○ Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea, where hair cells transduce sound into neural signals.  Theories of Pitch Perception: ○ Place Theory: Different pitches activate specific places on the cochlea's basilar membrane. ○ Frequency Theory: Pitch is determined by the rate of nerve impulses. Touch Composed of four distinct skin sensations: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Gate-Control Theory: Spinal cord gates control the transmission of pain signals to the brain. Taste (Gustation) Five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami. Taste buds contain receptors that detect chemicals in food. Smell (Olfaction) Chemical sense where molecules bind to receptors in the nasal cavity. Bypasses the thalamus and directly connects to the olfactory bulb, linked to memory and emotion. Body Position and Movement Kinesthesia: Sensing the position and movement of body parts. Vestibular Sense: Monitors head position and balance using semicircular canals in the inner ear. Extrasensory Perception (ESP) Claims of perception without sensory input (e.g., telepathy, clairvoyance). Research has not consistently supported ESP phenomena under controlled conditions. Sensation the process by which our sensory reception and nervous system receive information from our environment. Sensory receptors Sensory receptors are specialized parts of sensory nerve cells that enable people to perceive sensation from their environment Perception the process or result of becoming aware of objects, relationships, and events by means of the senses, which includes such activities as recognizing, observing, and discriminating. Bottom-up processing when the brain processes sensory information and uses clues to understand stimuli Top-down processing how our brains make use of information that has already been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems Transduction Transduction is the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another. Absolute threshold the smallest level of energy required by an external stimulus to be detectable by the human senses, including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Signal defecting theory relates to the idea that the intensity of the stimuli and the psychological and physical state of the person contribute to whether or not the person is able to detect the stimuli. Subliminal stimuli Subliminal sexual stimuli did not have an effect on men, but for women, lower levels of sexual arousal were reported. Sexual Orienation An inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people. Priming occurs when an individual's exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt without any awareness of the connection. Sensory adaption a reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it. Perceptual Set A perceptual set refers to a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. Motivation to a process of inducing and stimulating an individual to act in certain manner. Emotion Emotions are conscious mental reactions (such as anger or fear) subjectively experienced as strong feelings usually directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes in the body. FFA (fusiform face area)  The fusiform face area (FFA) is a region of the cortex in the inferior temporal lobe of the brain that has been shown to respond most strongly to faces compared with other types of input (e.g., objects) for typically developing individuals. Prosopagnosia is a neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces Parallel processing Parallel processing involves breaking down tasks into smaller subtasks and executing them simultaneously by multiple processing units, while pipelining involves overlapping execution stages of instructions to improve throughput and reduce latency in a sequential manner. Gestalt psychology school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided the foundation for the modern study of perception (a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.) Perceptual Interpretation the stage of perception in which we assign meaning to the information we have selected. Perceptual adaptation Perceptual adaptation refers to the brain's ability to adjust and adapt to changes in sensory input over time. It allows individuals to become accustomed to new or unusual sensations, leading to a change in perception. Extrasensory perception Extrasensory perception (ESP), also known as a sixth sense, or cryptaesthesia, is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to the reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses but sensed with the mind. Motion perception Motion perception is the process of inferring the speed and direction of elements in a scene based on visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive inputs. Touch the sensation produced by contact of an object with the surface of the skin. Pain an uncomfortable physical sensation that may manifest with different presentations Placebo is a substance or medical procedure that resembles an actual treatment but does not actually act on a disease or medical condition; in effect, it is a fake treatment, offered for experimental or other reasons. Distraction a classification of coping strategies that are employed to divert attention away from a stressor and toward other thoughts or behaviors that are unrelated to the stressor. Hypnosis a changed state of awareness and increased relaxation that allows for improved focus and concentration UNIT 4: CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness the individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. Cognitive neuroscience the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain that are involved in mental processes. Selective attention the act of focusing on a particular object for some time while simultaneously ignoring distractions and irrelevant information. Inattentional blindness is failing to see objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. An example of this would be going through a red light while driving because your attention was focused on texting. Dual processing The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. Heuristic a mental shortcut that allows an individual to make a decision, pass judgment, or solve a problem quickly and with minimal mental effort. Probabilistic reasoning a form of reasoning that combines probability with deductive logic, allowing for the consideration of uncertainty in decision-making processes. Moral cognition the study of the brain's role in moral judgment and decision-making. Identifiable victim effect The identifiable victim effect describes the likelihood that we feel greater empathy and an urge to help in situations where tragedies are about a specific, identifiable individual, compared to situations where the victims are a larger, vaguer group of people. Counterfactual thinking a concept in psychology that involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred—something that is contrary to what actually happened. Drugs/psychoactive drugs  substances that, when taken in or administered into one's system, affect mental processes, e.g., perception, consciousness, cognition, mood, and emotions. Depressants substances that slow down the central nervous system, resulting in an overall feeling of relaxation. Stimulants a broad class of drugs that increase the activity of the central nervous system. ​Hallucinogens psychedelic drugs that can potentially change the way people see, hear, taste, smell, or feel, and also affect mood and thought. Alcoholism chronic disease in which a person craves drinks that contain alcohol and is unable to control his or her drinking. LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) a synthetic chemical, made from a substance found in ergot, which is a fungus that infects rye (grain). SLEEP Sufficient sleep, especially rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, facilitates the brain's processing of emotional information. Circadian rhythm the 24-hour internal clock in our brain that regulates cycles of alertness and sleepiness by responding to light changes in our environment. Desynchronization a process inverse to synchronization (the fact of happening at the same time, or the act of making things happen at the same time) Stages of sleep N1 occurs right after you fall asleep and is very short (usually less than 10 minutes). It involves light sleep from which you can be awakened easily. N2 the largest percentage of total sleep time and is considered a lighter stage of sleep from which you can be awakened easily(20 minutes) N3 sleep is known as slow-wave, or delta, sleep( the deepest sleep stage) Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is the stage of sleep where most dreams happen. NREM when a person's brain activity, breathing, and heart rate slow down, body temperature drops, muscles relax, and eye movements stop. Paradoxical sleep (also known as REM) a phase of sleep characterised by brain activity similar to wakefulness, irregular and rapid breathing, rapid heart rate and muscular atonia. Insomnia  a common sleep disorder that can make it hard to fall asleep or stay asleep. Narcolepsy a sleep disorder that makes people very drowsy during the day. Sleep apnea a potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts. Sleepwalking also known as somnambulism, is when people get up and walk around while asleep. Night terrors a sleep disorder in which a person quickly awakens from sleep in a terrified state. Dream a state of consciousness characterized by sensory, cognitive, and emotional occurrences during sleep. Memory consolidation the process by which a temporary, labile memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form. Neural pathway a series of connected neurons that send signals from one part of the brain to another Activation Synthesis a neurobiological way to explain the origin of dreams. Consciousness: Definition and Key Aspects Consciousness: Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. Selective Attention Definition: The ability to focus awareness on a particular stimulus amidst a constant stream of sensory input. Humans process an estimated 11 million bits of information per second, yet only a small fraction reaches conscious awareness. Phenomena of Selective Attention 1. Inattentional Blindness: ○ Failure to notice visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere. ○ Example: Missing a person walking through a scene while concentrating on a task. 2. Change Blindness: ○ Failure to detect significant changes in the environment.  ○ Example: Not noticing a change in a person’s clothing during a conversation. These phenomena highlight the limited capacity of conscious awareness and the pivotal role of selective attention in shaping perception. Dual Processing Definition: The dual-track nature of the mind, with conscious (deliberate) and unconscious (automatic) processing occurring simultaneously. High Road: Reflective, deliberate, and controlled processes. Low Road: Intuitive, automatic, and faster processes. Example: Driving a car while consciously focusing on directions but unconsciously managing steering and speed. Sleep and Dreams Time Spent in Sleep: Approximately one-third of our lives. Sleep is vital for physical health, cognitive function, and emotional well-being. Stages of Sleep 1. N1 (Stage 1 Non-REM Sleep): ○ Transitional phase marked by slowed breathing, irregular brain waves, and hypnagogic hallucinations (e.g., a sensation of falling or floating). 2. N2 (Stage 2 Non-REM Sleep): ○ Deeper sleep lasting about 20 minutes. ○ Characterized by sleep spindles (bursts of rapid brain activity). ○ Plays a role in memory consolidation. 3. N3 (Stage 3 Non-REM Sleep): ○ The deepest sleep stage, also known as slow-wave sleep. ○ Lasts about 30 minutes and features large, slow delta waves. ○ Difficult to awaken during this stage. 4. REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement): ○ Begins about an hour after falling asleep. ○ Associated with vivid dreaming and rapid brain waves. ○ Despite wake-like brain activity, muscles are relaxed, leading to its description as paradoxical sleep. ○ REM periods lengthen as the night progresses. Sleep Cycle Sleep stages cycle approximately every 90 minutes. As the night progresses: ○ N3 sleep diminishes. ○ REM and N2 sleep periods lengthen. ○ By morning, about 20-25% of sleep is spent in REM. Effects of Sleep Deprivation Impaired cognitive function and memory. Weakened immune system. Increased risk of obesity, accidents, and chronic health issues. Sleep Disorders 1. Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep. 2. Narcolepsy: Sudden, overwhelming sleep attacks. 3. Sleep Apnea: Temporary breathing interruptions causing repeated awakenings. 4. Parasomnias: Includes sleepwalking and sleeptalking. Dreams Occur predominantly during REM sleep. Theories: ○ Freud's Theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires and conflicts. ○ Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random neural activity, interpreted by the brain into narratives. Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive Drugs: Chemical substances that alter perceptions, moods, and neural activity. Substance Use Disorder Definition: Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences. Mechanisms: ○ Tolerance: Need for larger doses to achieve the same effect. ○ Withdrawal: Negative symptoms upon cessation. Categories of Psychoactive Drugs  1. Depressants: ○ Alcohol: A disinhibitor that slows brain activity controlling judgment and inhibitions. ○ Barbiturates: Tranquilizers that reduce anxiety but impair memory and judgment; potentially lethal when combined with alcohol. ○ Opiates: Derived from opium; temporarily lessen pain and anxiety but are highly addictive, with severe withdrawal symptoms. 2. Stimulants: ○ Caffeine: Increases alertness and wakefulness; found in coffee, tea, and some sodas. ○ Nicotine: Highly addictive; both arousing and relaxing, found in tobacco products. ○ Cocaine: Produces a rush of euphoria followed by a crash; depletes brain’s dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. ○ Methamphetamine: Triggers dopamine release, heightening energy and euphoria; long-term use damages dopamine-producing neurons. ○ Ecstasy (MDMA): A stimulant and mild hallucinogen; triggers dopamine release and blocks serotonin reuptake, enhancing social connectedness but damaging serotonin-producing neurons over time. 3. Hallucinogens: ○ LSD: Produces vivid hallucinations and altered states of consciousness. ○ Marijuana: Amplifies sensory experiences; relaxes and disinhibits but can impair memory and learning. Factors Influencing Drug Use 1. Biological Influences: ○ Genetic predispositions may increase vulnerability to addiction. ○ Example: Deficiencies in the brain’s dopamine reward system. 2. Psychological Influences: ○ Stress, failure, or depression may lead individuals to use drugs as a coping mechanism. 3. Social-Cultural Influences: ○ Peer pressure, cultural norms, and drug availability play significant roles. UNIT 5: LEARNING Associative learning a learning principle that states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be mentally linked to one another. Automatic behavior  Behavior that is performed without conscious control, often in the context of extreme drowsiness and with amnesia for an event. Habits any regularly repeated behaviour that requires little or no thought and is learned rather than innate. Classical conditioning learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour. Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Resondent behaviour behavior that is typically automatic and involuntary. Operant Behavior Behaviors that operate in the environment to generate consequences. Cognitive Learnig a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring remembering and using knowledge. An unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally triggers an automatic response. A conditioned stimulus is a thing or sound that starts out without an associated response but then is conditioned to have a specific response based on what the person doing the training requires. A conditioned response is a behavior that does not come naturally but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus. an unconditioned response is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus The nervous system directly stimulates endocrine glands to release hormones, which are referred to as neural stimuli. Reinforcement means you are increasing behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing behavior. Negative reinforcement encourages specific behaviors by removing or avoiding negative consequences or stimuli. Positive reinforcement a method for behavior modification that increases the likelihood or probability that a behavior will occur. Schedules of reinforcement the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior. Gratification the pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. Punishment a consequence that reduces or aims to reduce the likelihood of targeted and undesirable behavior from happening again. Antisocial personality Disorder is a mental condition in which a person has a long-term pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others without any remorse. Prosocial behavior to a range of positive behaviors, including positive interactions (e.g., friendly play or peaceful conflict resolutions), altruism (e.g., sharing, offering help), and behaviors that reduce stereotypes Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses Variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time period Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Emphasis: Learning results in lasting change, distinguishing it from temporary behavioral changes caused by fatigue or illness. Types of learning include: 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Observational Learning Associative Learning Definition: A learning principle that states ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be mentally linked to one another. Example: Associating a smell with a memory or event. Classical Conditioning  Definition: A type of learning where one learns to associate two stimuli and anticipate events. Foundational Work: Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food). Key Concepts in Classical Conditioning 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response (e.g., food causing salivation). 2. Unconditioned Response (UR): An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food). 3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (e.g., a bell). 4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after being paired with food). 5. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell). Key Processes in Classical Conditioning 1. Acquisition: The initial stage when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. 2. Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus. 3. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause. 4. Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. 5. Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and irrelevant stimuli. Applications of Classical Conditioning Phobias: Exposure therapy leverages classical conditioning to reduce fear. Addiction: Cues associated with drug use can trigger cravings. Taste Aversions: Avoiding foods that previously caused illness. Operant Conditioning  Definition: Learning through rewards and punishments for behavior. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment. Key Figure: B.F. Skinner and his experiments with operant chambers (Skinner boxes). Key Concepts in Operant Conditioning 1. Operant Behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences. 2. Respondent Behavior: Automatic and involuntary responses to stimuli. Reinforcement Definition: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. 1. Positive Reinforcement: Adds a rewarding stimulus (e.g., praise for completing homework). 2. Negative Reinforcement: Removes an aversive stimulus (e.g., taking aspirin to relieve a headache). Punishment Definition: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. 1. Positive Punishment: Adds an aversive stimulus (e.g., giving a fine for speeding). 2. Negative Punishment: Removes a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehavior). Schedules of Reinforcement 1. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforces behavior after a set number of responses. 2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: Provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling). 3. Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforces the first response after a fixed time period. 4. Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforces the first response after varying time intervals. Observational Learning Definition: Learning by observing and imitating others.  Key Figure: Albert Bandura and his Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults. Prosocial Behavior: Positive behaviors like altruism, sharing, and peaceful conflict resolution. Antisocial Behavior: Negative behaviors such as aggression and manipulation, often learned through observation. Habits and Automatic Behavior Habits: Regularly repeated behaviors requiring little thought; learned rather than innate. Automatic Behavior: Actions performed without conscious control, often under conditions of extreme drowsiness. Cognitive Learning Definition: Learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. Gratification: Emotional response of happiness resulting from fulfilling a desire or goal. Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior Patterns Fixed-Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Variable-Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-Interval Schedules: Reinforcement of the first response after a set time. Variable-Interval Schedules: Reinforcement of the first response after varying time intervals. UNIT 6 : MEMORY Introduction to Memory Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Without memory, individuals would not be able to: Recall past experiences. Recognize people. Learn languages. Perform everyday tasks. II. Measuring Memory Three Measures of Retention: 1. Recall: ○ The ability to retrieve information learned earlier (e.g., fill-in-the-blank questions). 2. Recognition: ○ Identifying items previously learned (e.g., multiple-choice questions). 3. Relearning: ○ Learning information more quickly when it is learned a second time, indicating prior retention. Hermann Ebbinghaus’ Research: Demonstrated the retention curve, showing that rehearsal improves memory retention. Found that the more frequently information is rehearsed on Day 1, the less time it takes to relearn on subsequent days. III. Memory Models 1. Information-Processing Model Encoding: Getting information into the brain. Storage: Retaining the information over time. Retrieval: Accessing the information when needed. 2. Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model: 1. Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.  2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Activated memory that holds a few items briefly. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent and limitless storage of knowledge, skills, and experiences. 3. Working Memory (Baddeley’s Model): Emphasizes active processing and integration of incoming sensory information and information from LTM. Includes the central executive that manages focus and information processing. Working Memory Capacity: ○ Varies by age and cognitive abilities. ○ Younger adults tend to have greater capacity than children or older adults. IV. Types of Memory 1. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Involves conscious recall of facts and experiences. Types: ○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., knowing the capital of a country). ○ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., recalling a birthday party). 2. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory): Involves automatic skills and conditioned responses. Includes: ○ Procedural Memory: E.g., riding a bike or playing an instrument. ○ Classically Conditioned Associations: E.g., salivating when seeing food. 3. Dual-Track Memory System: Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort (e.g., studying for an exam). Automatic Processing: Happens without conscious awareness (e.g., recalling how to ride a bike). V. Encoding Memories 1. Effortful Processing Strategies: Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units (e.g., phone numbers). Mnemonics: Memory aids using vivid imagery or organizational techniques (e.g., HOMES for the Great Lakes). Hierarchies: Organizing information into nested categories to enhance recall. 2. Distributed Practice: Spacing Effect: Distributed study yields better long-term retention than cramming. Testing Effect: Repeated self-testing improves memory retention. 3. Levels of Processing: Shallow Processing: Focuses on superficial aspects (e.g., appearance of words). Deep Processing: Involves semantic encoding, focusing on meaning, which leads to better retention. 4. Making Material Personally Meaningful: Relating information to personal experiences improves recall (Self-Reference Effect). VI. Storage of Memories 1. Sensory Memory: Iconic Memory: Brief visual memory lasting fractions of a second. Echoic Memory: Brief auditory memory lasting 3-4 seconds. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (7 ± 2 items). Retains information briefly unless rehearsed. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Potentially limitless in capacity. Not localized to a single brain area; distributed across neural networks. 4. Memory Consolidation: Transferring short-term memories into long-term storage. Often occurs during sleep. Involves the hippocampus for initial storage before transfer to other regions. VII. Brain Structures Involved in Memory 1. Explicit Memory: Hippocampus: Processes explicit memories for facts and events. Frontal Lobes: Involved in working memory and retrieval. 2. Implicit Memory: Cerebellum: Involved in forming and storing conditioned responses. Basal Ganglia: Facilitates procedural memories (e.g., skills). 3. Emotional Memory: Amygdala: ○ Triggers stress hormones to prioritize important memories. ○ Strengthens recall of emotionally charged events (e.g., trauma). VIII. Forgetting 1. Causes of Forgetting: Encoding Failure: Information never enters memory due to lack of attention or shallow processing. Storage Decay: Memories fade over time (Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve).  Retrieval Failure: Inability to access stored information due to lack of retrieval cues or interference. 2. Types of Interference: Proactive Interference: Old memories disrupt new learning. Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old memories. 3. Motivated Forgetting: Repression (controversial): Blocking traumatic memories unconsciously. IX. Memory Construction and Errors 1. Memory Construction: Memories are not exact replicas of events but reconstructions. Reconsolidation: Memories are altered slightly each time they are recalled. 2. Errors: Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into memory. Source Amnesia: Forgetting the source of a memory. False Memories: Fabricated memories influenced by suggestion or bias. X. Biological Basis of Memory 1. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synaptic connections with increased activity. Considered the neural basis for learning and memory. 2. Synaptic Changes: Increased neurotransmitter release and receptor growth. Creates more efficient neural transmission. XI. Enhancing Memory 1. Study Techniques: Use distributed practice instead of cramming. Engage in active recall through self-testing. Make material personally meaningful to enhance deep processing. 2. Sleep: Sleep supports memory consolidation, improving recall and retention. Key Terms to Remember Encoding: Getting information into memory. Storage: Retaining information over time. Retrieval: Accessing stored information. Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and experiences. Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall of skills and responses. Chunking: Grouping items into manageable units. Mnemonics: Memory aids using vivid imagery. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening synapses to improve memory. I. Introduction to Thinking Thinking involves various mental activities such as knowing, remembering, and communicating. Metacognition: The act of thinking about one’s own thinking. II. Concepts and Prototypes Concepts: ○ Mental groupings of similar items, which simplify thinking. Prototypes: ○ Mental images that serve as the best example of a concept.  ○ Prototypes influence categorization and judgments (e.g., identifying someone based on stereotypes). III. Problem Solving Strategies: ○ Trial and Error: Repeated attempts until a solution is found. ○ Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a solution. ○ Heuristics: Simplified strategies for quick thinking but prone to errors. Insight: ○ Sudden realization of a solution. ○ Associated with bursts of activity in the right temporal lobe. Obstacles to Problem Solving: 1. Confirmation Bias: ○ The tendency to seek information that supports pre-existing beliefs. 2. Fixation: ○ The inability to view a problem from a new perspective. 3. Mental Set: ○ Approaching problems with a previously successful mindset. IV. Intuition Intuition guides quick judgments and decisions. Heuristics in Intuition: ○ Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on how well something matches a prototype. ○ Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on the ease of recalling similar events. Cognitive Biases: ○ Overconfidence: Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments. ○ Belief Perseverance: Holding onto beliefs despite contradictory evidence. Solution: Actively consider opposing viewpoints. Framing: ○ Presenting information in ways that influence decisions and judgments. Intuition: Strengths and Weaknesses:  Adaptive and experience-based but prone to errors. V. Creativity Definition: The ability to produce new and valuable ideas. Components of Creativity: 1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base. 2. Imaginative Thinking Skills: Seeing things in novel ways and making connections. 3. A Venturesome Personality: Willingness to take risks and seek new experiences. 4. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal rewards and satisfaction. 5. Creative Environment: Encourages exploration and innovation. VI. Animal Cognition Animals display surprising cognitive abilities such as problem-solving, memory, and even basic tool use. VII. Language Definition: A system of communication using spoken, written, or signed words. Structure of Language: ○ Phonemes: Basic sound units. ○ Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning. ○ Grammar: Rules for communication, including syntax and semantics. Language Acquisition: 1. Theories: ○ Chomsky’s Universal Grammar: Humans have an innate ability for language. ○ Learning grammar through recognizing patterns. 2. Stages of Development: ○ Babbling Stage (around 4 months): Spontaneous sounds. ○ One-Word Stage (around 1 year): Single words with meaning. ○ Two-Word Stage (around 2 years): Two-word sentences, often telegraphic (e.g., “want cookie”). 3. Critical Period: ○ Childhood is crucial for language acquisition.  ○ Learning a new language becomes significantly harder after this period. Brain Areas Involved: Broca’s Area: Controls speech production. Wernicke’s Area: Involved in language comprehension. Aphasia: Language impairment resulting from damage to these areas. VIII. Thinking and Language Linguistic Determinism: Language strongly determines thought. Linguistic Relativism: Language influences thought but does not strictly determine it. Bilingual Advantage: ○ Bilingual individuals often show enhanced cognitive abilities, such as better attention control. IX. Thinking in Images Mental imagery is a powerful tool for visualization and planning. Mental Practice: ○ Can enhance performance in sports, academics, and other activities by simulating tasks mentally. What is Intelligence? Definition: Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. While intelligence tests typically measure academic skills, the definition varies across cultures. Theories of Intelligence 1. Spearman’s General Intelligence (g): ○ Spearman proposed that all intellectual abilities stem from one underlying factor, general intelligence (g). ○ Those who perform well in one area (e.g., verbal intelligence) tend to perform well in others (e.g., spatial reasoning), supporting the idea of a g factor. ○ Factor analysis supports this theory by revealing clusters of related abilities. 2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities: ○ L.L. Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities: verbal fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. ○ Although he didn’t rank individuals on a single scale, evidence suggested that those excelling in one ability tend to excel in others, supporting g. 3. Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory: ○ Fluid Intelligence (Gf): The ability to reason abstractly and solve problems, typically declining with age. ○ Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Knowledge gained through experience and education, increasing with age. ○ John Carroll’s analysis found Gf and Gc to be key components linking general intelligence and specific abilities. 4. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: ○ Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability but a collection of multiple intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence. ○ He also proposed a ninth intelligence—existential intelligence, the ability to ponder life’s big questions. ○ Evidence from savant syndrome supports this theory, where individuals may have below-average IQs but excel in certain areas like computation or art. 5. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: ○ Sternberg proposed three intelligences that predict real-world success: 1. Analytical Intelligence: Traditional academic problem-solving. 2. Creative Intelligence: The ability to generate novel ideas. 3. Practical Intelligence: Solving everyday tasks with no clear solution. ○ Sternberg, like Gardner, emphasized the diverse nature of intelligence and the importance of different abilities for success in life. 6. Emotional Intelligence (EI): ○ Consists of four abilities: 1. Perceiving emotions. 2. Understanding emotions. 3. Managing emotions. 4. Using emotions to facilitate thinking. ○ EI contributes to greater success in relationships, careers, and parenting but some question whether it fits within the traditional definition of intelligence. 2. Intelligence Assessment and Dynamics Types of Intelligence Tests: 1. Achievement Tests: Assess what you've learned. 2. Aptitude Tests: Predict your ability to learn new skills. History of Intelligence Testing: 1. Francis Galton: Measured "natural ability" through physical traits like sensory acuity and reaction time. 2. Alfred Binet: Developed the first intelligence test to help identify French schoolchildren needing special attention. 3. Lewis Terman: Adapted Binet’s test for use in the U.S., introducing the IQ (Intelligence Quotient). 4. David Wechsler: Developed the WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), the most widely used intelligence test, with subtests measuring verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Principles of Test Construction: 1. Standardization: Ensures uniform testing procedures and meaningful score comparisons. 2. Reliability: The consistency of a test’s results. 3. Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure, including predictive validity, which assesses how well the test predicts future behaviors like academic performance. 3. Extremes of Intelligence Low Extreme (Intellectual Disability): An IQ score of 70 or below, characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. High Extreme: Individuals with high IQs often achieve high levels of success in education and life. 4. Intelligence Across the Life Span 1. Stability or Change?: Intelligence tests before age 3 are poor predictors of future ability, but by age 4, scores stabilize. 2. Aging and Intelligence: Fluid intelligence declines with age, particularly in late adulthood, while crystallized intelligence increases, leading to better knowledge and social reasoning in old age. 5. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 1. Heritability: Estimates suggest that genetic variation accounts for 50%-80% of intelligence test score differences within a group. 2. Environmental Factors: Factors like socioeconomic status, educational opportunities, and childhood experiences significantly influence intelligence. ○ Gene-environment interaction: Genes and experience work together, shaping cognitive abilities. 6. Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores 1. Gender Differences: ○ Minor average differences exist in intelligence scores between genders. Males generally perform better in spatial reasoning and complex math, while females tend to excel in verbal fluency and object location tasks. ○ Cultural differences, expectations, and opportunities can influence these gaps. 2. Race and Ethnicity: ○ Intelligence test score differences among racial and ethnic groups are largely attributed to environmental factors, not genetic differences. Socioeconomic status, educational opportunities, and cultural values are key influences. 7. Bias in Intelligence Testing  1. Scientific Bias: If a test predicts future behavior equally across different groups, it is not biased. 2. Cultural Bias: Some intelligence tests may reflect cultural knowledge and experiences, making them unfair for individuals from different cultural backgrounds. 3. Stereotype Threat: The anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can impair performance on intelligence tests, but reducing this threat can improve outcomes. 8. Thinking and Language Concepts and Problem Solving: Concepts: Mental groupings that simplify thinking, such as categories (e.g., fruits, animals). Prototype: A mental image that represents the best example of a category. Problem Solving: ○ Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution. ○ Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to errors. ○ Insight: Sudden realization of the solution to a problem. Decision Making: 1. Intuition: Quick, automatic decisions often based on heuristics. 2. Heuristics: ○ Representativeness Heuristic: Judging based on how similar something is to a prototype. ○ Availability Heuristic: Judging based on how easily an example comes to mind. 3. Cognitive Biases: ○ Overconfidence Bias: Overestimating one’s abilities or knowledge. ○ Belief Perseverance: Holding on to initial beliefs despite contradictory evidence. ○ Framing Effect: The way information is presented can affect decisions. 9. Language and Thinking 1. Language Structure: Language is composed of phonemes (sound units), morphemes (meaning units), and grammar (rules for using language). 2. Language Acquisition: The process of learning language, with critical periods for language development during early childhood. ○ Universal Grammar (Chomsky): Humans have an innate ability to learn grammar. ○ Stages of Language Development: From babbling to one-word and two-word stages. 3. Linguistic Relativity: The idea that language influences thought, though it doesn't determine it. Different languages may shape how we think about concepts like time or color. 10. Cognitive Skills in Other Species While animals like primates and dolphins demonstrate cognitive abilities such as problem-solving and tool use, human language and symbolic thought remain distinct due to their complexity and abstraction. *Basic Motivational Concepts* - *Motivation*: A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. Motivations arise from the interplay between nature (the bodily “push”) and nurture (the “pulls” from personal experiences, thoughts, and culture). - *Key Motivation Theories*: - *Instinct Theory*: Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors. - *Drive-Reduction Theory*: Physiological needs create an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to reduce the need (e.g., hunger drives us to eat). - *Arousal Theory*: Suggests we seek an optimal level of arousal. - *Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs*: Prioritizes needs, starting from physiological needs to self-actualization. *Sexual Motivation* - *Biological Influences*: Sexual motivation is influenced by biological factors, but psychological and social-cultural factors play a larger role compared to other motivations like hunger. - *Sexual Response Cycle*: Described by Masters and Johnson, it includes four stages: 1. *Excitement*: Genital areas engorge with blood. 2. *Plateau*: Excitement peaks. 3. *Orgasm*: Muscle contractions and pleasurable release occur. 4. *Resolution*: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state. - *Sexual Dysfunctions*: Problems that impair sexual arousal or functioning, such as erectile disorder and female orgasmic disorder. *External and Imagined Stimuli* - *External Stimuli*: Both men and women can become aroused by seeing or reading erotic material. Men often show a closer connection between feelings of arousal and physical responses. - *Imagined Stimuli*: The brain is a significant sex organ; sexual fantasies can influence arousal and desire. Both genders report similar brain responses to sexual imagery. *Sexual Orientation* - *Definition*: Sexual orientation refers to the direction of sexual attractions, which can be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual. - *Biological Influences*: Research indicates brain differences and genetic factors may influence sexual orientation. For instance, a hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men. - *Cultural Attitudes*: Acceptance of sexual orientation varies across cultures, with societal attitudes influencing self-identification and expression of sexual orientation. *Adverse Effects of Sexual Content* - *Impact of Pornography*: Research shows that exposure to sexually explicit material can lead to harmful beliefs (e.g., acceptance of rape), reduced satisfaction in relationships, and desensitization to normal sexuality. *Teen Sexual Behavior and Contraception* - *Communication*: Open discussions about contraception with parents and partners lead to higher contraceptive use among teens. - *Influencing Factors*: Factors contributing to unplanned pregnancies include alcohol use, father absence, and media influences. *Conclusion* - Understanding the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in sexual motivation and behavior is crucial for addressing sexual health and orientation issues effectively. *Key Concepts in Emotion and Motivation* *1. Theories of Emotion* - *James-Lange Theory*: Emotions arise from our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. For example, we feel sorry because we cry, and we feel afraid because we tremble. - *Cannon-Bard Theory*: This theory posits that emotion-arousing stimuli trigger both bodily responses and subjective experiences simultaneously. For instance, our heart races at the same time we feel fear. - *Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory*: According to this theory, to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label that arousal. For example, after a run, receiving good news might feel more intense due to lingering arousal. *2. Biological Influences on Emotion* - *Amygdala's Role*: The amygdala is crucial in processing emotions, particularly fear. It can trigger responses before we consciously label them, allowing for quick reactions to threats. - *Physiological Responses*: Different emotions can share similar physiological responses, making it challenging to distinguish between them based solely on bodily reactions. *3. Motivation Types* - *Intrinsic Motivation*: This is the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. For example, a student may study a subject out of genuine interest rather than for a grade. - *Extrinsic Motivation*: This involves performing a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment. For instance, studying to achieve a high grade is extrinsically motivated. *4. Social Networking and Narcissism* - Social networking can enhance self-esteem but also feed narcissistic tendencies. Narcissistic individuals often seek attention and validation through social media, leading to superficial relationships. *5. The Need to Belong* - Humans have a fundamental need to belong, which is crucial for mental health. Positive social interactions can enhance well-being, while social isolation can lead to negative outcomes such as depression. *6. Achievement Motivation* - Achievement motivation is linked to success in life. Studies show that individuals with high intrinsic motivation tend to perform better academically and pursue more challenging opportunities. *7. Emotional Expression and Gender* - There are gender differences in emotional expression, with women generally reporting deeper emotional experiences and being more adept at reading nonverbal cues. *8. Impact of Technology on Relationships* - Technology has transformed social interactions, often leading to less face-to-face communication. While it can connect people, excessive use may contribute to feelings of loneliness and depression. *9. Strategies for Managing Emotions and Motivation* - Effective strategies include setting SMART goals, monitoring progress, and creating supportive environments to foster motivation and emotional well-being. This summary encapsulates the essential theories and concepts related to emotion and motivation, providing a comprehensive overview for study and review. *Key Concepts in Emotion and Health Psychology* *1. The Impact of Emotions on Health* - *Social Connections and Longevity*: People with extensive social networks and happy spouses tend to have better health and longer lives (Diener et al., 2017; Chopik & O’Brien, 2017). - *Stress and Disease Vulnerability*: Chronic stress can lower resistance to infections and increase vulnerability to diseases. Behavioral medicine integrates psychological and medical knowledge to study this relationship (Kiecolt-Glaser, 2009). *2. Theories of Emotion* - *James-Lange Theory*: Emotions arise from our awareness of bodily responses to stimuli. For example, we feel afraid after noticing our heart racing. - *Cannon-Bard Theory*: Bodily responses and emotional experiences occur simultaneously. - *Schachter-Singer Theory*: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal. *3. Stress Responses and Health* - *General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)*: Selye's model describes the body's response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Prolonged stress can lead to health issues (Selye, 1976). - *Learned Helplessness*: Individuals may develop a sense of helplessness when they perceive a lack of control over stressful situations, impacting their emotional and physical health. *4. Emotional Expression and Cultural Differences* - *Universal Emotions*: Basic emotions such as joy, sadness, and fear are recognized across cultures, although the expression may vary. - *Cultural Display Rules*: Different cultures have varying norms regarding emotional expression, influencing how emotions are displayed and interpreted. *5. Positive Psychology and Well-Being* - *Positive Psychology*: Focuses on strengths and virtues that help individuals thrive, emphasizing the importance of subjective well-being and positive traits. - *Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon*: Engaging in acts of kindness can enhance personal happiness and strengthen social bonds. *6. Coping with Stress* - *Coping Strategies*: Effective coping involves developing a sense of control, optimistic thinking, and building social support to mitigate stress and improve health. - *Exercise as a Stress Reliever*: Regular physical activity has been shown to improve mood, reduce anxiety, and enhance overall well-being. *7. Emotional Intelligence and Gender Differences* - *Gender Sensitivity to Emotions*: Research indicates that women generally exhibit greater emotional literacy and sensitivity to nonverbal cues than men. *8. Health Implications of Personality Types* - *Type A vs. Type B Personalities*: Type A individuals, characterized by competitiveness and urgency, are more prone to stress-related health issues compared to Type B individuals, who are more relaxed. *9. The Role of Optimism in Health* - *Optimism and Longevity*: Studies show that optimistic individuals tend to live longer and report better health outcomes than pessimists. *10. Summary of Emotion Theories* \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|} \hline Theory & Explanation & Example \\ \hline James-Lange & Emotions arise from awareness of bodily responses. & Heart racing leads to fear. \\ \hline Cannon-Bard & Bodily responses and emotional experiences occur simultaneously. & Heart races and fear is felt at the same time. \\ \hline Schachter-Singer & Emotion depends on arousal and cognitive label. & Arousal interpreted as fear or excitement. \\ \hline Zajonc; LeDoux & Some responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal. & Startled by a sudden sound. \\ \hline Lazarus & Cognitive appraisal defines emotion, sometimes without awareness. & Sound is "just the wind." \\ \hline \end{tabular} This summary encapsulates essential concepts in emotion and health psychology, highlighting the interplay between emotional experiences, social connections, and health outcomes. *Stress and Health Overview* *Definitions* - *Stress*: The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. - *Perceived Stress Scale*: A tool to measure perceived stress levels, with scores ranging from 0 to 40, indicating low to high perceived stress. *Types of Stressors* 1. *Catastrophes*: Large-scale events causing significant stress (e.g., natural disasters). 2. *Significant Life Changes*: Major life events (e.g., marriage, divorce). 3. *Daily Hassles*: Everyday irritations that can accumulate and lead to stress. *Stress Responses* - *Fight or Flight Response*: Triggered by stress, preparing the body for immediate action by increasing heart rate and respiration, and diverting blood from digestion to muscles. - *Tend-and-Befriend Response*: Under stress, especially among women, individuals often provide support to others and seek support themselves. *Impact of Stress on Health* - *Stress and Illness*: Stress does not directly cause illness but can weaken the immune system, making individuals more vulnerable to diseases. - *Stress and Cancer*: While stress does not create cancer cells, it may weaken the body's defenses against them. *Coping Strategies* - *Problem-Focused Coping*: Addressing the stressor directly (e.g., time management). - *Emotion-Focused Coping*: Managing emotional responses to stress (e.g., seeking support). *Role of Social Support* - *Social Support*: Close relationships provide emotional support, which is linked to better health outcomes and longevity. - *Faith Communities*: Participation in religious activities is associated with lower mortality rates due to social support and healthy behaviors. *Mindfulness and Exercise* - *Mindfulness*: Practices like meditation can reduce stress and improve overall well-being. - *Aerobic Exercise*: Regular physical activity is shown to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety, improving mood and health. *Psychological Factors* - *Locus of Control*: The perception of control over one's environment can influence stress levels and health outcomes. - *Learned Helplessness*: A state where individuals feel unable to control their environment, often leading to increased vulnerability to stress and health issues. *Conclusion* Understanding the interplay between stress, coping mechanisms, and health can empower individuals to manage stress more effectively and improve their overall well-being.