International Political and Security Issues PDF

International Political and Security Issues Security Complex - a group of states that have intertwined security concerns and can’t be really considered independently from each other. Associated to Barry Buzan and Copenhagen School of security studies Security Community - group o...

International Political and Security Issues Security Complex - a group of states that have intertwined security concerns and can’t be really considered independently from each other. Associated to Barry Buzan and Copenhagen School of security studies Security Community - group of states between which conflict is unthinkable, usually based on geographical proximity. Linked to Karl Deutch and later elaborated by constructivists. NATO→ outside works as a sec complex but inside is a sec community among their members NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY (The Washington Treaty) 14 articles only: Article 5 on collective defence; Article 10 on enlargement; Article 13 on the duration of the treaty 32 Member States but there are a lot of Partners Visegrad Group was established in 91 with the aim of moving away from communism and implementing the reforms required for full membership of the Euro-Atlantic institutions, such as NATO and the EU NATO partnership programs, used bc of the geo limitation of membership (from the treaty) The global partnership program can replace real membership and facilitate cooperation. Key Objectives: NATO develops relations with partners based on common values, reciprocity, mutual benefit and mutual respect.  Dialogue and cooperation with partners enhances international security, increasing stability and safety in partner countries and in NATO members. It also contributes to upholding the rules-based international order, helping defend the values on which the Alliance is based NATO Partnership (examples): Mongolia - positioned strategically btw russia and china, collaborates with NATO on Peacekeeping operations Columbia is NATOs first american partner - addressing narco trafficking and organized crimes Japan very important partner, contribution during afghanistan and also in the anti piracy operation bc of the international waters https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_84336.htm NATOs missions (with partners): Counter-terrorism; Counter-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery; Emerging security challenges, such as those related to cyber defence, energy security and maritime security, including counter-piracy; Civil preparedness Accession process: 1. Accession talks with NATO in Brussels to determine if an invitee meets the requirements 2. Letter of intent 3. Accession protocols signed by MS allowing to be part of NATO treaty 4. Accession protocol ratified 5. SG invites the new MS to accede the treaty 6. Invitee accedes the treaty 7. Depositing their instruments of accession with the US Department of State Budget for 2023~2 Billion$ Calculated based on the MS GDP MS committed in 2006 to have 2% of GDP for security, only 8 states did Political Goals To safeguard the freedom and independence of Member States---- Legal basis under International Law: Article 51 of the UN Charter (the inherent right of individual or collective defence) NATO is an intergovernmental organization (NOT supranational); decisions by consensus Transatlantic relationship (European members + USA, Canada);collective defence; joint planning, economic and scientific cooperation In the bipolar world order until 1989, focused on eu to prevent enlargement of warsaw pact then fast transformation, no purpose? no, since the world is not at peace- coop with EU and UN for pk, also new roles in crisis management, counterterrorism but also new challenges such as cyber… United military organization-- A framework for defense: a network of military commands; of telecommunications and information systems In peacetime most NATO forces are under national command (except: NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defence System (NATINAMDS); joint staffs of NATO commands Two guidelines for functioning: 1. Mutual recognition of sovereignty of participatory states 2. National commitment (developing individual capabilities for security) MAJOR NATO INSTITUTIONS North Atlantic Council (Ambassador or head of State) Defence Planning Committee - defence ministers Nuclear Planning Group - defence ministers Military Committee - Chief of Staff, gives directives and proposals on military leadership and strategic issues. International Secretariat -since 1951, about 1200 employees Secretary general - Mark Rutte 14th secretary ○ presides at NAC sessions; ○ mediates and facilitates consultation in the alliance; ○ coordinates external relations; ○ shapes NATO policy; ○ a spokesman for the organisation ACO - Allied Command Operation Primary mission - to deliver effective and efficient command and control of NATO operations. tasked with overseeing operations both within NATO territories and abroad HQ in Mons, Belgium SHAPE - Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe SACEUR - Supreme Allied Commander Europe : JFQ Joint Force Command Brunssum, Holland Naples Italy Allied Command Transformation: ACT is tasked with developing new concepts and capabilities to adapt to the changing security environment. ACT HQ; Norfolk, Virginia NATO PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMS Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (all NATO members + Partnership for Peace countries) (1994: Partnership for Peace Program: PfP) - Mediterranean Dialogue - Partners Across the Globe NATO 2030 Program NATO University Institutionalised link between NATO and the EU (NATO International Staff and European External Action Service =EEAS) Principles of democracy, freedom, rule of law; stabilisation Interest based partnership programmes (not geography-based;theme-based) and regular evaluation Extension of partnership: NATO−Pacific Partnership Council; India, Sweden, Finland; Ukraine, Georgia) Mediterranean Dialogue (MD), Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI), African Union (AU The NATO 2022 Strategic Concept 3 core tasks: Deterrence and Defence  ○ Anti nuclear armament ○ Greater military presence ○ Secure use and access to the cyberspace ○ Hybrid tactics = coercive use of political and economic measures Crisis Prevention and Management ○ More deployed operations ○ Human security Cooperative Security ○ Open door - but in accordance with Art 10 ○ Partnership with Georgia and Ukraine ○ More links to EU, strategic partnerships black sea, Middle eas, Indo pacific ○ Climate change OSCE ORGANIZATION for SECURITY and CO-OPERATION in EUROPE 57 Member States, equals = decisions by consensus (gives room for disagreements and slow decision making), biggest regional organization 11 partner states (Afghanistan, Algeria, Australia, Egypt, Israel,Japan, Jordan, Morocco,The Republic of Korea, Thailand, Tunisia) 2023: 2,267 total staff; OSCE budget for 2021: €139 million + €39 million for extra-budgetary project  Biggest mission = 2021: + €109.8 million for OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine and for OSCE Observer Mission at the Russian Checkpoints Donetsk and Gukovo Founded in 1975 after the Conference on the Security and Co-operation in Europe with the signing of the Helsinki Treaty. From CSCE to OSCE - Following the adoption of the 1990 Paris Charter envisaging a new post-Cold War European order, in 1995 the CSCE was put on a more permanent, institutional basis and renamed the OSCE. Rotating presidency every year Ministerial Council is held annually Ambassadors meat each week in Vienna 3 core interests: European security and monitoring cooperation in economics, science and technology, and environmental issues Humanitarian access and cultural co-operation Helped mitigate conflicts that have broken out in the post soviet countries The DECAOGUE I. Sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty II. Refraining from the threat or use of force III. Inviolability of frontiers IV. Territorial integrity of States V. Peaceful settlement of disputes VI. Non-intervention in internal affairs VII. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief VIII. Equal rights and self-determination of peoples IX. Co-operation among States X. Fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law ★ Treaty on Open Skies: signed in 1992, came into effect in 2002 (2020: the USA withdrew; 2021: Russia withdrew) ★ Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE Treaty): signed in 1990 came into effect in 1992 (=arms ceilings); 2023: Russia withdrew from the Treaty; USA + NATO allies suspended participation Framework for agreements: Military transparency - Vienna Document that requires OSCE states to keep each other informed about the size and structure of their armed forces and to notify one another on big military exercises - not really honored by all Election Observation - Support for national authorities to improve electoral process Promote democratic institutions Works towards tolerant societies The OSCE lacks the legal powers and the resources needed to live up to its ambition of becoming a platform for pan-European/trans-Atlantic cooperation. Milestones in the evolution of OSCE 1975-1990: a forum for negotiation– not an international organization yet Paris Summit (1990) – decision to convert into an organization Various organs established (1992) e.g. the Parliamentary Assembly, Forum for Security and Cooperation Budapest Summit (1994) – Ministerial and Permanent Councils established; new name: OSCE Secretary General of the OSCE Helga Maria Schmid Chairmanship of the OSCE Is held by Malta in 2024 Ian Borg Secretary General (The Mission Director) ○ Heads the OSCE Secretariat in Vienna, ensuring smooth operations under the guidance of the Chairperson-in-Office. Secretariat, Vienna (The Operations Hub) ○ Provides operational and administrative support for field missions and helps the Chairmanship with activities. Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), Warsaw (The Democracy Advocates) ○ Promotes democratic elections, protects human rights Representative on Freedom of the Media, Vienna (The Media Watchdog) ○ Monitors media developments across all 57 states, raising red flags on violations of free expression and media freedom. High Commissioner on National Minorities, The Hague (The Conflict Preventer) ○ Provides early warnings about ethnic tensions and takes action to prevent them from escalating into conflicts. OSCE’s Involvement 1. Mediation in the "5+2" Format: The OSCE mediates the negotiation process known as the "5+2" talks, involving: ○ Moldova and Transnistria (the parties). ○ Russia, Ukraine, and the OSCE (mediators).  ○ TheEuropean Union (EU) and the United States (observers). The goal is to find a mutually acceptable resolution that respects Moldova’s territorial integrity while granting some form of autonomy to Transnistria. 2. Peacekeeping and Monitoring: The OSCE monitors the security situation and facilitates dialogue to prevent escalation. It emphasizes demilitarization and confidence-building measures between the sides. 3. HumanRights and Democracy Promotion: The OSCE advocates for improving human rights and democratic governance in Transnistria, which remains an authoritarian regime with limited freedoms EU Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Think of EU defense in 3 phases: 1. Foundation (1948–1992): Starting the idea of EU defense (Brussels Treaty, Petersberg Tasks). 2. Building (1992–2003): Integrating policies into the EU framework (CFSP, peacekeeping, NATO cooperation). 3. Action (2003–present): Developing tools and strategies (CARD, EDF, EPF, Strategic Compass). TIMELINE The Early Foundations (1948–1992): 1. 1948 – Treaty of Brussels: ○ First idea of collective defense in Western Europe to counter communism. ○ Led to the creation of the Western European Union (WEU) in 1954. 2. 1957 – Treaty of Rome: ○ Focus shifted to economic integration (EEC), sidelining defense policy. 3. 1992 – Treaty of Maastricht: ○ Introduced the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) as part of the EU structure and establishment of European Security and Defence Policy ○ Acknowledged the need for EU security policy post-Cold War. Strengthening EU Security (1992–2003): 4. 1992 – Petersberg Tasks: ○ Defined EU’s role in crisis management (humanitarian missions, peacekeeping). ○ Later integrated into the EU framework via the 1999 Treaty of Amsterdam. 5. 1999 – Treaty of Amsterdam:  ○ Codified EU responsibilities in peacekeeping and created the role of High Representative for CFSP. 6. 1999 – Helsinki Headline Goals: ○ Set the objective of creating an EU Rapid Reaction Force. 7. 2003 – Berlin Plus Agreement: ○ Allowed the EU to access NATO assets for crisis management. ○ First EU peace mission: EUFOR Althea in Bosnia. Modern Developments (2003–Present): 8. 2003 – First EU Security Strategy: ○ Defined EU security threats and goals. 9. 2017 – New Tools for Defense: ○ CARD: Reviews member states’ defense capabilities to encourage cooperation. ○ EDF: Funds research and development for joint EU defense projects. 10. 2021 – European Peace Facility (EPF): Provides military aid to partners while respecting human rights standards. 11. 2022 – Strategic Compass: Clear, actionable goals with timelines to improve EU crisis response and defense capacity. EU nature in regards to SECURITY ▪ Diverse legal status of members (e.g. France: a nuclear power) common security and defence policy is difficult to develop ▪ EU: shared practice of certain elements of sovereignty of Member States (MS) (agrarian-; duty-; foreign; immigration policy) BUT: inter-governmental decisions on security and defence policy affair The Security Strategy of the EU 2003 Javier Solana, High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy; entitled: A Secure Europe in a Better World The Security Strategy of the EU 2016 Submitted by Federica Mogherini; titled: Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe. A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy Tools of „soft diplomacy” Joseph Nye Objectives: continue Transatlantic cooperation; stabilise the neighbourhood of the EU The Treaty of Lisbon (2009) Gave legal personality to the EU, enabling it to act as an entity in international law (Article 47 TEU). Consolidated the position of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, combining diplomatic and security roles. ○ The role was expanded to include Vice-President of the European Commission ○ EU's chief diplomat in charge of CFSP and CSDP ○ The HR leads the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) Javier Solana (1999–2009): Pioneered the role. Josep Borrell Fontelles (2019–2024): Current High Representative. Established the European External Action Service (EEAS) to support the High Representative. Introduced a mutual defense clause (Article 42.7 TEU) and a solidarity clause for responding to terrorism or disasters. Key Changes: Permanent President of the European Council, instead of a rotating one (currently Charles Michel). Strengthened cooperation with NATO under the Berlin Plus Agreement (2003). Reinforced the EU’s crisis management capabilities, paving the way for tools like CARD (2017) and EDF (2017). Tools and Initiatives for EU Defense 1. (EDA, 2004) - European Defence Agency ○ Develops defense capabilities, supports research, and fosters industry cooperation. ○ Operates the European GPS network - the Satellite Centre of the EU (Torrejon, Spain) 2. PESCO (2017) - Permanent Structured Cooperation ○ Framework for deeper military cooperation among willing member states. 3. CARD (2017) - Coordinated Annual Review on Defence ○ Reviews national defense plans and synchronizes efforts. 4. EDF (2017) - European Defence Fund ○ Funds research and development for innovative defense projects. 5. Strategic Compass (2022) ○ A roadmap for reinforcing EU defense by 2030 with a rapid deployment force, hybrid response strategies, and partnerships with NATO, UN, and regional actors. Practical Examples of EU Security Policy 2003: EUFOR Althea in Bosnia – First EU peace operation. ○ to maintain peace after the Bosnian War by supporting stability, disarming factions Post-2003: Over 20 crisis response missions. Cooperation with NATO in crisis management under Berlin Plus. Key Personalities HR of the Union for CFSP ○ Javier Solana (1999-2009): First High Representative for CFSP. ○ Catherine Ashton 2009−2014 ○ Federica Mogherini (2014-2019): Focused on global strategy. ○ Josep Borrell Fontelles (2019–2024): Current High Representative. Permanent President of the EC ○ Charles Michael (2019-now): Incumbent president of the European Council ○ Antonio Costa (from December): Foreign Affairs Council = FAC responsible for the EU's external action, which includes foreign policy, defence and security, trade, development cooperation and humanitarian Aid ○ Composed Of the foreign ministers of the MSs ○ Meetings chaired by the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, currently Josep Borrell Fontelles. The High Representative is assisted by the European External Action Service (EEAS) FAC also brings together: defence ministers, development ministers, trade Ministers ○ Ensure unity, consistency, effectiveness Establishment of the position of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Vice President of the European Commission Summary The UN: peacekeeping operations, occasionally robust responses against spoilers; military contribution of member states required NATO : peace enforcement as a part of its PSOs; endorses an approach primarily dependent on military capabilities; while civilian actors are required to carry out reconstruction and assistance tasks. The EU: a civilian approach, its military capabilities are generally inadequate; developing military capabilities; reliance on NATO The OSCE: addresses areas of confidence building, human rights, minority rights and democracy; civil field operations and activity