Intelligence - Definition, Theories, and Testing PDF

INTELLIGENCE Dr Soha A Ghobashy Prof. of Psychiatry Neuropsychiatry Department Faculty of Medicine-Alexandria University Definition: Intelligence describes a person’s ability to learn and remember information, recognize concepts and their rel...

INTELLIGENCE Dr Soha A Ghobashy Prof. of Psychiatry Neuropsychiatry Department Faculty of Medicine-Alexandria University Definition: Intelligence describes a person’s ability to learn and remember information, recognize concepts and their relations, apply the information to their own behavior in an adaptive way. Introduction Intellectus latin word = (perception or comprehension). As early as 2200 bc, Chinese administrators tested civil servants (mandarins) periodically to be sure that their abilities qualified them for their job. However, its use in the English language dates only from the late nineteenth century, when it was revived by the philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820– 1903) and by the biologist/statistician Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911).  Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911) Galton (Darwin’s cousin) intellectual abilities were heritable. can be tested by sensory discriminations or reaction time He contributed to most of the statistics for IQ  Objectives Theories 5/6 IQ testing IQ distribution IQ differences Disorders related to Intelligence Artificial Intelligence Theories of Intelligence British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) 1-Spearman’s two-factor theory(1902) Intellectual ability is determined by two factors: g factor, general s factor, specific Spearman concluded that there is a single g-factor that represents an individual’s general intelligence across multiple abilities and that a second factor, s, refers to an individual’s specific ability in one particular area  G-FACTOR laWYeR: client: dOctOR: ___________ this problem should be read as ‘laWYeR is to client as dOctOR is to ___________’. EXAMPLE; ‘qualitative principles of cognition’: REASONING apprehension of experience, education of relations education of correlates  S-Factor Based on the G-factor, the S factor is developed as shown by the correlation of these factors when tested on Intelligence tests (0.3-0.7) Thus, a person’s score on a particular test depends on two things: the person’s specific ability (s) on the particular test (such as spatial reasoning) and their level of the g factor, or general reasoning ability. Louis L. Thurstone (1938) 2- Primary Mental Abilities: Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization  3-Horn and Cattell (1966) Fluid intelligence is reflected by performance on relatively culture-free tasks, such as those that measure the ability to see relations among objects or the ability to see patterns in a repeating series of items. Crystallized intelligence is defined by tasks that require people to have already acquired information, such as vocabulary and semantic information, and is therefore more culture-bound. Example..Problems in exams New..fluid old …crystallized  4-GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY (1983) Gardner’s theory of intelligence is based on a neuropsychological analysis of human abilities. 1-Verbal/linguistic intelligence, 2-musical intelligence, 3-logical/mathematical intelligence, 4- Visual-spatial intelligence, 5-bodily/kinesthetic intelligence 6-Naturalistic Intelligence 7-personal intelligence. Personal intelligence includes awareness of one’s own feelings (intrapersonal intelligence) and the ability to notice individual differences in other people and to respond appropriately to them – in other words, to be socially aware (interpersonal intelligence). Robert Sternberg(1985) 5- Triarcheric Theory Analytical componential intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to intelligence that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what a traditional IQ test measures. Creative experimental intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation, and problem-solving. Practical contextual intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment. 6-Emotional intelligence-Goleman (1995, 1998). This type of intelligence refers to the social and emotional components of interactions with others: the more socially sensitive and emotionally sensitive you were to the needs and behaviors of others, the more successful your interaction would be.  A Study on Engineers in a company The study asked 106 software engineers and programmers to complete a general ability scale which measured vocabulary, arithmetic, reasoning and spatial ability and also to rate their social skills, job performance and job dedication. These employees, their supervisors and their personnel managers were interviewed. A measure of personality was taken and salary level and sex were noted. Neither high general mental ability nor high social skill was individually associated with high levels of performance or high salaries. Each factor seemed to influence the other. Social skill was highly correlated with performance and salary when workers were very mentally able; mental ability was highly correlated with job success when social skill was high. Having good social skill but low mental ability, however, resulted in lower salary levels. ‘Perhaps individuals low in General Mental Ability, the authors suggest, ‘may attempt to overcompensate for their lack of intelligence by focusing a disproportionate amount of time and effort on social aspects of the job.’ IQ testing Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are a series of assessments used to determine the general intelligence of an individual in relation to other people the same age. Uses of intelligence test 1. Educational purpose: to classify student according to their IQ 2. Vocational guidance to select employees 3. Measure the level of intellectual deterioration in CNS diseases 4. Detect social and intellectual harmony between husbands and wives.  Binet–Simon Scale (first IQ test done(1905)),in the USA. Lewis Terman of Stanford University translated and revised giving the Stanford–Binet Scale which can be used on age ranges from 2 to 23. The Stanford–Binet Scale consists of various tasks grouped according to mental age. Simple tests include identifying parts of the body and remembering which of three small cardboard boxes contains a marble. Intermediate tests include tracing a simple maze with a pencil and repeating five digits orally. Advanced tests include explaining the difference between two abstract words that are close in meaning (such as fame and notoriety) and completing complex sentences. Stanford–Binet Scale  IQ(Intelligence quotient) = mental age/ chronological age x 100 Deviation IQ. Instead of using the ratio of mental age to chronological age, the deviation IQ compares a child’s score with those received by other children of the same chronological age (the deviation IQ was invented by David Wechsler). Suppose that a child’s score is one standard deviation above the mean for their age. The standard deviation of the ratio IQ scores is 16 points, and the score assigned to the average IQ is 100 points. If a child’s score is one standard deviation above the mean for their age, the child’s deviation IQ score is 100 + 16 (the standard deviation) = 116. A child who scores one standard deviation below the mean receives a deviation IQ of 84 (100 – 16),  Wechsler Intelligence Scales The Wechsler–Bellevue Scale, published in 1939, was revised in 1942 for use in the armed forces I- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-1995) testing adults aging 16-90 (the WAIS-R-1981) (the WAIS- III-1997) (WAIS-IV=2008). II-Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children ages 5-15 (WISC-1949),( WISC- R-1974) III-WPPSI--Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence ages 4to6yrs  Previous versions of the scale provided a measure called ‘full-scale IQ’ which comprised scores from two separate subscales – performance IQ and verbal IQ. The current version now provides a total full scale IQ score. It is a large collection of individual tests (the test is called a ‘battery’) currently validated on 2,200 individuals between 16 and 90 years of age. The full-scale IQ is made up of scores from four separate subscales all of which have core components or subtests. It is these core components (10 tests) which contribute to full-scale IQ. The WAIS is the most widely administered adult intelligence test. Distribution of adult intelligence scale categories: Belgian statistician Lambert Quételet, 1796–1874) Differences in intelligence 1-Nature vs. nurture i.e. Heredity versus environmental factors According to Sternberg and Grigorenko (1997), we know three facts about the roles of heredity and environment in intelligence: (1) both contribute to intelligence; (2) they interact in various ways; (3) poor and enriched environments influence the development of intellectual ability regardless of heredity. Both adoption studies and twins studies have shown that both heredity and environment are critically important in determining intelligence. Without nurturing, stimulating environment, even the best inherited potential may be wasted. 2-Gender differences of intelligence A controversial issue Most agree on no differences in cognitive performance, however, there is sex difference in certain types like mathematical reasoning & visuospatial ability; Piaget glass of water test; horizontal vs parallel level of water Females score higher than males on tests of clerical speed and accuracy, verbal fluency, reading abilities and fine dexterity.  Proposed Rationale for Gender Differences Evolutionary theory: Men Are Hunters Psychosocial theories suggest that sex differences are learned through experience or imitation Biological theories suggest that sex differences in cognitive ability may be due to biological factors such as hormonal regulation and brain organization. Cognitive theories; Empathizing and systemizing are two ways of processing information, described by Simon Baron- Cohen (2003), in which people work at identifying someone’s thoughts and feelings (perspective-taking, altruism, cooperativeness) or analyzing relationships in non-social interactions (an interest in science, technology, the natural world, etc.). 3-Age difference of intelligence; the measured IQs of individuals younger than 7 years do not correlate very well with later IQ scores, so we can not put much weight on the IQ earned by a young child as a predictor of adult intellectual abilities. This does not mean that testing the young child IQ is without purpose. Determination of young child IQ is important if we suspect retardation of thought that the child is exceptional or gifted. Although the resulting score may not predict the adult intelligence, but they serve as a guide to assess the development of the child in comparison with others. 4-Racial difference of intelligence Different studies showed that whites scores approximately 15 points higher on IQ tests of general intelligence than black. Different proposal have been offered to explain such difference..e.g. black- white difference in IQ scores can be attributed to environmental factors as available economic and educational opportunities, health and nutrition. Or because the tests themselves are biased and unfair. 5-Geographical difference of intelligence no difference between city and village children or between developed and developing countries as long as the same chance for education and other environmental stimulations are available. Disorders Related to Intelligence Intellectual Disabilities (ID) ID is described as a condition that is diagnosed before age 18, and includes below-average general intellectual function, accompanied by impairment in the persons ability to acquire the skills necessary for daily living. Dementia Dementia refers to the gradual decline in cognitive ability and is characterized by impairment in short-term and long-term memory ,as well as, all cognitive functions deterioration  Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial intelligence (AI) is wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions.such as learning and problem-solving. The inside story of ChatGPT: How OpenAI founder Sam Altman built the world’s hottest technology with billions from Microsoft  1. Narrow AI (Weak AI) Narrow AI is designed and trained on a specific task or a narrow range tasks(Machine Learning&Deep Learning) These Narrow systems performs their designated tasks but mainly lack in the ability to generalize tasks no understanding nor awareness Examples: Voice assistants like Siri or Alexa that understand specific commands. Facial recognition software used in security systems. Recommendation engines used by platforms like Netflix or Amazon.  2. General AI (Strong AI) General AI refers to AI systems that have human intelligence and abilities to perform various tasks. Systems have capability to understand, learn and apply across a wide range of tasks that are similar to how a human can adapt to various tasks. While General AI remains a theoretical concept, researchers aim to develop AI systems that can perform any intellectual task a human can. Potential Applications: Robots that can learn new skills and adapt to unforeseen challenges in real-time. AI systems that could autonomously diagnose and solve complex medical issues across various specializations.. Superintelligence (Super AI) SuperAI surpasses intelligence of human in solving- problem, creativity, and overall abilities. Super AI develops emotions, desires, need and beliefs of their own. Theyare able to make decisions of their own and solve problem of its own. WhileSuper AI remains speculative, it could revolutionize industries, scientific research, and problem-solving, possibly leading to unprecedented advancements. However, it also raises ethical concerns regarding control and regulation.  1. Reactive Machines Reactive machines are the most basic form of AI. They operate purely based on the present data and do not store any previous experiences or learn from past actions. These systems respond to specific inputs with fixed outputs and are unable to adapt. Examples: IBM’s Deep Blue, which defeated the world chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997. It could identify the pieces on the board and make predictions but could not store any memories or learn from past games. Google’s AlphaGo, which played the board game Go using a similar approach of pattern recognition without learning from previous games.  2. Limited Memory in AI Limited Memory AI can learn from past data to improve future responses These systems use historical data to make decisions and predictions but do not have long-term memory. Examples: Self-driving cars: They observe the road, traffic signs, and movement of nearby cars, and make decisions based on past experiences and current conditions. Chatbots that can remember recent conversations to improve the flow and relevance of replies.  3. Theory of Mind Theory of Mind AI aims to understand human emotions, beliefs, intentions, and desires. While this type of AI remains in development, it would allow machines to engage in more sophisticated interactions by perceiving emotions and adjusting behavior accordingly. Potential Applications: Human-robot interaction where AI could detect emotions and adjust its responses to empathize with humans. Collaborative robots that work alongside humans in fields like healthcare, adapting their tasks based on the needs of the patients.  4. Self-Awareness AI Self-Aware AI is an advanced stage of AI that possesses self-consciousness and awareness. This type of AI would have the ability to not only understand and react to emotions but also have its own consciousness, similar to human awareness. While we are far from achieving self-aware AI, it remains the ultimate goal for AI development. It opens philosophical debates about consciousness, identity, and the rights of AI systems if they ever reach this level. Potential Applications: Fully autonomous systems that can make moral and ethical decisions. AI systems that can independently pursue goals based on their understanding of the world around them.  AI is being tested and used in the healthcare industry for dosing drugs and different treatment in patients, and for surgical procedures in the operating room. Other examples of machines with artificial intelligence include computers that play chess and self-driving cars. Artificial intelligence also has applications in the financial industry, where it is used to detect and flag activity in banking and finance such as unusual debit card usage and large account deposits—all of which help a bank's fraud department. Applications of Artificial Intelligence  ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE EXAMPLES In Psychiatry apps on phones & social media , chatbots , virtual reality  https://iqtestprep.com/quick-iq-test Quick IQ Test, 25 Questions UPDATED! This test now provides a table of how your score compares to the average taker of this test but it does not provide a numeric IQ score. If you would like to obtain your True Certified IQ Score, please take our Official IQ Test! Welcome to our 25 question, quick IQ test. This is a 25 question IQ test with a 6-minute test timer. Once you click the Start Quiz button below your test will start with a 6-minute timer counting down. Once the timer is up or you have completed the 25 questions, you will be able to see your test score results. You will also see how your score compares to the average of other IQ test takers for this shorter 25 question test. Once your score is generated, you will also be able to see what IQ category your score falls within. Take this 25 question IQ test as many times as you want, or take our longer, Official IQ Test to receive a more accurate score. Your IQ Test Result: 121 Very Smart ★★★★ https://www.myiqtested.com/#:~:text=Insight%20into %20Your,Overall%20IQ Thank You