INORGANIC CHEMISTRY MODULE 7.pdf

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY MODULE 7: TRACE ELEMENTS The human body is composed of elements that can be roughly divided into abundant elements and trace elements. Abundant elements consist of the major elements that are involved in the formation of covalent bonds and are important constituents of tissues (...

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY MODULE 7: TRACE ELEMENTS The human body is composed of elements that can be roughly divided into abundant elements and trace elements. Abundant elements consist of the major elements that are involved in the formation of covalent bonds and are important constituents of tissues (C, H, O, N, etc.), and semi-major elements. which often exist in the ionic state, and are involved in functions of the living body through the maintenance of osmotic pressure and membrane potentials (K, Na, etc.). Major elements account for 96% of the total body weight, and the semi-major elements account for 3 to 4% of the total body weight. Deficiency of major elements can lead to nutritional disorders and their presence in excess can cause obesity. Deficiencies or excess state of semi-major elements often result in water and electrolyte abnormalities. TRACE ELEMENTS Trace elements (or trace metals) are minerals present in living tissues in small amounts. Some of them are known to be nutritionally essential. others may be essential (incomplete evidence). and the remainder are considered to be nonessential. Trace elements function primarily as catalysts in enzyme systems: some metallic ions, such as iron and copper. Participate in oxidation-reduction reactions in energy metabolism. Iron, as a constituent of hemoglobin and myoglobin, also plays a vital role in the transport of oxygen. All trace elements are toxic if consumed at sufficiently high levels for long enough periods. The difference between toxic intakes and optimal intakes to meet physiological needs for essential trace elements is great for some elements but is much smaller for others. Although these elements account for only 0.02% of the total body weight, they play significant roles (for example: as active centers of enzymes or as trace bioactive substances). DEFINITION OF TERMS Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Average daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%) healthy individuals; often used to plan nutritionally adequate diets for individuals. Adequate Intake (AI): Intake at this level is assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy; established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): Average daily level of intake estimated to meet the requirements of 50% of healthy individuals; usually used to assess the nutrient intakes of groups of people and to plan nutritionally adequate diets for them; can also be used to assess the nutrient intakes of individuals. Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects. IRON DESCRIPTION The average 70-kg adult body contains around 4200 mg of iron ions. The majority (65%) can be found as hemoglobin or myoglobin, which is classified as functional iron. As a component of hemoglobin and myoglobin, it functions as a carrier of oxygen in the blood and muscles. Because of iron losses during menstruation, women in their reproductive years require higher iron intake than men. Women have difficulty achieving this high intake because they generally have a relatively low caloric intake. Since the need for iron is greater during periods of rapid growth, children from infancy through adolescence, as well as pregnant women, may fail to consume sufficient iron to meet their needs. Iron absorption is affected by many factors. Heme iron is present in meats, poultry, and fish. Ascorbic acid facilitates the absorption of nonheme iron, but dietary fiber, phytates, and certain trace elements may diminish it. Iron is actually excreted only in small amounts if there are no major blood losses. The human body regulates the uptake of iron precisely, only replacing the amount of iron lost in order to prevent an iron overload. Typical examples of iron loss would be through superficial GI tract bleeding or menstruation bleeding in women. Nevertheless, typically not more than 3 mg of iron per day is lost. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) Birth to 6 months - 0.27 mg 7 to 12 months - 11 mg 1 to 3 years 7 mg 4 to 8 years 10 mg 9 to 13 years - 8 mg 14 to 18 years - 11 mg (MALE), 15 mg (FEMALE) 19 - 50 years - 8 mg (MALE), 19 mg (FEMALE) 51+ years - 8 mg Pregnant Women - 27 mg Lactating Women - 9 mg MEDICINAL USE The lack of functional iron leads to anemia, which is characterized by lethargy and weakness. Usually, iron is administered orally as Fe2+ or Fe3+ salts. Fe2+ compounds are more soluble at physiological pH. The advantage of Fe3+ salts is that they are not prone to oxidation in aqueous solutions. The most common medicinal preparations include FeCl3, FeSO4, Fe(II) fumarate, Fe(II) succinate and Fe(II) gluconate. The oral dose of Fe2+ for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia is typically recommended as 100- 200 mg/day. In the case of ferrous sulfate (FeSO4), this is equal to 65 mg of Fe2+, which is given three times per day. As a therapeutic response, the hemoglobin concentration should rise about 100-200 mg/100 ml/day. It is recommended to continue the treatment for 3 months once the normal range is reached. It is known that oral treatment with iron salts can lead to Gl irritations DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Iron Deficiency Anemia a condition in which blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues. As the name implies, iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient iron Without enough iron, your body can't produce enough of a substance in red blood cells that enables them to carry oxygen (hemoglobin). As a result, iron deficiency anemia may leave you tired and short of breath. This can be corrected with iron supplementation. ZINC DESCRIPTION The average human body contains around 2 g of Zn2+. Therefore, zinc (after iron) is the second most abundant d-block metal in the human body. Zinc occurs in the human body as Zn2+. Zinc is needed for the proper growth and maintenance of the human body. It is found in several systems and biological reactions, and it is needed for immune function, wound healing, blood clotting, thyroid function, and much more. Meats, seafood, dairy products, nuts, legumes, and whole grains offer relatively high levels of zinc. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) Birth to 6 months - 2 mg 7 to 12 months - 3mg 1 to 3 years - 3 mg 4 to 8 years - 5 mg 9 to 13 years - 8 mg 14 to 18 years - 11 mg (MALE). 9 mg (FEMALE) 19+ years - 11 mg (MALE), 8 mg (FEMALE) Pregnant Women - 11 mg Lactating Women - 12 mg MEDICINAL USE Zinc sulfate in the form of either injection or tablets can be used to treat zinc deficiency and as supplementation in conditions with an increased zinc loss. Zinc acetate is one treatment option for Wilson's disease, as zinc supplementation prevents the absorption of copper. It is important to note that zinc treatment has a low onset time, which is crucial to take into account when switching from another therapy such as chelation therapy. Zinc acetate is usually offered to the market in an oral delivery form, mainly in capsules DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Growth Retardation (dwarfism) Zinc deficiency can be an important factor in the growth of growth hormone (GH) deficient children. Poor Appetite A lack of zinc in the diet can lead to appetite loss and taste disturbances that could promote a low desire to eat IODINE DESCRIPTION It is an essential micronutrient and an integral component of thyroid hormones. In food and water, iodine occurs largely as inorganic iodide and is absorbed from all levels of the gastrointestinal tract. High intakes are due to the use of iodine in disinfectants, the addition of iodate to dough conditioners, the use of iodophors in the dairy industry, the presence of iodine in alginates, and the use of iodized table salts. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) Birth to 6 months - 110 mcg 7 to 12 months - 130 mcg 1 to 3 years - 90 mcg 4 to 8 years - 90 mcg 9 to 13 years - 120 mcg 14 to 18 years - 150 mcg 19+ years - 150 mcg Pregnant Women - 220 mcg Lactating Women - 290 mcg MEDICINAL USE For iodine deficiency, it can be given by mouth or injection into a muscle. As an antiseptic, it may be used on wounds that are wet or to disinfect the skin before surgery. For iodine deficiency, consumption of iodized salt is recommended (20 - 40 mg of iodine/kg of salt). For radiation exposure, KI should be taken before or immediately after exposure. Radiation is most harmful to pregnant or breastfeeding women and children, so KI is dosed according to the amount of radiation exposure and age. For thyroid storm, 5 drops of a saturated solution of KI every 6 hours is recommended. For reducing the size of thyroid nodules, iodized salt (150 mcg-200 mcg daily) in addition to thyroxine (1.5 mcg per kg daily) after surgery. For benign breast disease, molecular iodine 70 - 90 mcg/kg for 4-18 months is recommended, DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Goiter an abnormal enlargement of your thyroid gland Hypothyroidism a condition in which your thyroid gland doesn't produce enough of certain crucial hormones Spontaneous Abortion & Stillbirth Ovaries contain large quantities of iodine and so does the thyroid gland. This means that an iodine deficiency may affect the ovaries and their estrogen production. SELENIUM DESCRIPTION Selenium helps your body make special proteins, called antioxidant enzymes. These play a role in preventing cell damage. Some research suggests that selenium may help with the following: Prevent certain cancers. Protect the body from the poisonous effects of heavy metals and other harmful substances. In some studies to determine if selenium could aid in prostate cancer prevention, men took 100 micrograms daily. The safe upper limit for selenium is 400 micrograms a day in adults. Anything above that is considered an overdose. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) Children (1 - 3 yrs) - 20 mcg/day Children (4 - 8 yrs) - 30 mcg/day Children (9 - 13 yrs) - 40 mcg/day Children (>14yrs) & Adults - 55 mcg/day Pregnant women - 60 mcg/day Lactating women - 70 mcg/day DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Keshan Disease (Endemic Cardiomyopathy in China) A condition caused by deficiency of the essential mineral selenium which is a potentially fatal form of cardiomyopathy. It was first observed in Keshan province in China, and it has since been found in other areas where the selenium level in the soil is low. Treatment involves selenium supplementation. Kashin Beck Syndrome A disorder of the bones and joints of the hands and fingers, elbows, knees, and ankles of children and adolescents who slowly develop stiff deformed joints, shortened limb length, and short stature due to necrosis (death) of the growth plates of bones and of joint cartilage. COPPER DESCRIPTION Copper is an essential nutrient for the body. Together with iron, it enables the body to form red blood cells. It helps maintain healthy bones, blood vessels, nerves, and immune function, and it contributes to iron absorption. Sufficient copper in the diet may help prevent cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) Infants - 80 mcg/kg/day Children - 40 mcg/kg/day Adults - 30 mcg/kg/day DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Hypocupremia or copper deficiency is a rare and underrecognized cause of bone marrow dysplasia. Neutropenia an abnormally low concentration of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) in the blood. MOLYBDENUM DESCRIPTION Molybdenum is essential to humans. Molybdenum is needed for at least three enzymes. ● ● ● Sulfite oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate, necessary for the metabolism of sulfur amino acids. Xanthine oxidase catalyzes oxidative hydroxylation of purines and pyridines including conversion of hypoxanthine to xanthine and xanthine to uric acid. Aldehyde oxidase oxidizes purines, pyrimidines, and pteridines and is involved in nicotinic acid metabolism. Low dietary molybdenum leads to low urinary & serum uric acid concentrations & excessive xanthine excretion. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adult men and women is 45 μg/day. The average dietary intake of molybdenum by adult men and women is 109 and 76 μg/day, respectively. TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKE LEVEL (UL) The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is 2 mg/day, a level based on impaired reproduction and growth in animals. CHROMIUM DESCRIPTION Chromium is an essential trace element that potentiates insulin action and influences carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. ADEQUATE INTAKE (AI) Birth to 6 months - 0.2 mcg 7 to 12 months - 5.5 mcg 1 to 3 yrs - 11 mcg 4 to 8 yrs - 15 mcg 9 to 10 yrs - 25 mcg (MALE), 21 mcg (FEMALE) 14 to 18 yrs - 35 mcg (MALE), 24 mcg (FEMALE) 19 to 50 years - 35 mcg (MALE, 25 mcg (FEMALE) 51+ years - 30 mcg (MALE), 20 mcg (FEMALE) Pregnant Women - 30 mcg Lactating Women - 45 mcg MANGANESE DESCRIPTION Manganese is an essential trace element that is naturally present in many foods and available as a dietary supplement. Manganese is a cofactor for many enzymes, including manganese superoxide dismutase, arginase, and pyruvate carboxylase. Through the action of these enzymes, manganese is involved in amino acid, cholesterol, glucose, and carbohydrate metabolism; reactive oxygen species scavenging; bone formation; reproduction; and immune response Manganese also plays a role in blood clotting and hemostasis in conjunction with vitamin K DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS STATES Manganic Madness (Mn toxicity in Chile) characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and compulsions. In most cases, the patients are subsequently aware of the abnormal nature of these phenomena. The psychosis lasts from one to three months whether or not the patients are immediately removed from the mines. Manganism the clinical syndrome resulting from acute or chronic overexposure to the transition metal manganese, one of the essential trace elements. It primarily manifests as parkinsonism and is frequently clinically, radiologically, and histopathologically indistinguishable from classic idiopathic Parkinson's disease