INFORMATION SYSTEMS_s2.pdf

INFORMATION SYSTEMS Is combination of people, hardware, TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS software, communication devices, network and data resources that 1. Manual Information System processes (can be storing, retrieving, Paper and pencil...

INFORMATION SYSTEMS Is combination of people, hardware, TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS software, communication devices, network and data resources that 1. Manual Information System processes (can be storing, retrieving, Paper and pencil transforming information) data and 2. Informal Information System information for a specific purpose Word to mouth With the help of IS, enterprises, and 3. Formal Information System individuals are able to use computers Written procedures to collect, store, process, analyze, and 4. Computer Based Information System distribute information COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM o Is a combination of people, IT, and business processes that helps management in taking important decisions to carry out the business successfully FOLLOWING STEPS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) MODEL: 1. Data is collected from an organization or from external environments and converted into suitable format required for processing (INPUT); 2. This is converted into information (more meaningful form) obtained after manipulation of these collected data (PROCESSING); 3. Then information is stored for future use or communicated to user after application of respective procedure on it (OUTPUT). IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER BASED IS (CBIS) 1. In general, a SYSTEM has a number of 4. The way a subsystem works with another interrelated and interdependent subsystem is called INTERACTION. subsystems or components. The different subsystems interact No subsystem can function in with each other to achieve the goal isolation; it depends on other of the system, subsystems for its inputs. 5. The work done by individual subsystems is 2. All systems work for predetermined integrated to achieve the central goal of objectives and the system is designed and the system. developed accordingly. The goal of individual subsystem is 3. If one subsystem or component of a system of lower priority than the goal of the fails; in most of the cases, the whole system entire system. does not work. However, it depends on… “how the subsystems are interrelated” MAJOR AREAS OF COMPUTER BASED APPLICATIONS (FMHIP) 1. Finance and Accounting: The main goal of this subsystem (considering Business functions as whole system) is to: i. ensure the financial viability of the organization, ii. enforce financial discipline & plan and iii. monitor the financial budget. It also helps in forecasting revenues, determining the best resources and uses of funds and managing other financial resources. 2. Marketing and Sales: Marketing and sales activities have a key role for running a business successfully in a competitive environment. The objective of this subsystem is to: i. maximize the sales and ii. ensure customer satisfaction. The marketing system facilitates: i. the chances of order procurement by marketing the products of the company, ii. creating new customers and iii. advertising the products. 3. Human Resource Management: Human resource is the most valuable asset for an organization. Utilization of this resource in the most effective and efficient way is an important function for any enterprise. Effective and efficient utilization of manpower in a dispute-free environment in this key functional area ensures to facilitate disruption free and timely services in business. 4. Inventory /Stores Management: The inventory management system is designed with a view to keeping the track of materials in the stores. The system is used to regulate: i. The maximum and minimum level of stocks,  ii. Raise alarm at danger level stock of any material, iii. Give timely alert for re-ordering of materials with optimal re-order quantity and iv. Facilitate various queries about inventory like total inventory value at any time, identification of important items in terms stock value (ABC analysis), identification most frequently moving items (XYZ analysis) etc. 5. Production or Manufacturing: The objective of this subsystem is to optimally deploy man, machine and material to maximize production or service. The system: i. generates production schedules and ii. schedules of material requirements, iii. monitors the product quality, iv. plans for replacement or overhauling the machinery and v. also helps in overhead cost control and waste control. TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM THREE VITAL ROLES IN BUSINESS FIRMS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) 1. "Support an organization's business processes and operations": 3. "Support strategic competitive This includes Operations Support advantage": Systems such as: This includes: i. Transaction Processing i. Expert Systems, Systems (TPS), ii. Knowledge Management ii. Process Control Systems Systems, (PCS). iii. Strategic Information Systems, and 2. "Support business decision-making": iv. Functional Business Systems. This includes Management Support System such as: i. Management Information Systems (MIS), ii. Decision Support Systems (DSS), and iii. Executive Information Systems (EIS).  MANAGER HAVE TO HAVE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOLLOWING, FOR THE EFFECTIVE & EFFICIENT INFORMATION SYSTEM: Managers or business professionals are not required complete understanding of complex technologies, concepts and the specialized applications in the area of information systems but what they should know is five key areas of knowledge requirements, which are given below: 1. Foundation Concepts 4. Development Processes It includes fundamental It comprise how end users and IS business, and managerial specialists develop and execute concepts business/IT solutions to problems. e.g. 'what are components of a system and their functions' 'what 5. Management Challenges competitive strategies are It includes 'how the function and required'. IT resources are maintained' and utilized to attain top 2. Information Technologies (IT) performance and build the It includes operation, business strategies. development and management of hardware, software, data management, networks, and other technologies. 3. Business Applications It includes major uses of IT in business steps i.e. processes, operations, decision making, and strategic/competitive advantage. FRAMEWORK OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BUSINESS PROFESSIONALS  INFORMATION SYSTEM VS. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 𝑰𝑺 ≠ 𝑰𝑻 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) IT is one of the part of IS Information Technology refers to the IT can be viewed as a subsystem of technology of the production, storage information system that includes and communication and hardware, software, databases, management of information using networks and other electronic devices. computers and micro-electronics and Sometimes, the term Information is a crucial part of information systems. Technology can be used Most of the businesses use IT to create interchangeably with information and process data. systems. IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) IN BUSINESS 1. Information system helps managers in 4. A good information system may help in efficient decision-making to achieve generating innovative ideas for solving the organizational goals. critical problems. 2. An organization will be able to survive 5. Knowledge gathered though and thrive in a highly competitive Information system may be utilized by environment on the strength of a well- managers in unusual situations. designed Information system. 6. Information system is viewed as a 3. Information systems helps in making process; it can be integrated to right decision at the right time i.e. just on formulate a strategy of action or time. operation.  TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM OPERATION SUPPORT SYSTEM (OSS) MAIN OBJECTIVE: is to improve the operational efficiency of the enterprise. As these systems primarily are concerned with the operations, they use internal data primarily for managers at the lower levels. OSS produces a variety of information for internal and external use. ROLE: is to o effectively process business transactions, o control industrial processes, o support enterprise communications and o collaborations and update corporate database. 3 CATEGORIES: 1. TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPS) At the lowest level of management, TPS is an information system that manipulates data from business transactions. (i.e. manipulate transaction data into usable information) Any business activity such as sales, purchase, production, delivery, payments or receipts involves transaction and these transactions are to be organized and manipulated to generate various information products for external use. For example: i. selling of a product to a customer will give rise to the need of further information like customer billing, inventory status and increase in account receivable balance. Typically, a TPS involves the FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES: i. Capturing data to organize in files or databases ii. Processing of files/databases using application software; iii. Generating information in the form of reports; and iv. Processing of queries from various quarters of the organization. TPS COMPONENTS o Inputs Source documents, such as customer orders, sales, slips, invoices, purchase orders, and employee time cards, are the physical evidence of inputs in to the Transaction Processing System.  They serve several purposes like: ─ Capturing data, ─ Facilitating operations by communicating data and authorizing another operation in the process ─ Standardizing operations by indicating, which data require recording and what actions need to be taken and providing a permanent file for future analysis, if the documents are retained etc. o Processing This involves the use of journals and registers to provide a permanent and chronological record of inputs. ─ Journals are used to record financial accounting transactions ─ Registers are used to record other types of data not directly related to accounting. Some of the common journals are sales journal, purchase journal, cash receipts journal etc. o Storage Ledgers and files provide storage of data on both manual and computerized systems. The general ledger, the accounts/vouchers payable ledgers, and the accounts receivable ledger are the records of final account that provide summaries of a firm's financial accounting transactions. o Output Any document generated in the system is output. Some documents are both output and input (i.e. for other). ─ For example: a customer invoice is an o output from the order-entry application system and o input document to the customer. Financial reports summarize the results of transaction processing and express these results in accordance with the principles of financial reporting. FEATURES OF TPS (SAB-L) o Source of input for other systems TPS is the basic source of internal information for other information systems. Heavy reliance by other information systems on TPS for this purpose makes TPS important for tactical and strategic decisions as well. o Automation of basic operations Any TPS aims at automating the basic operations of a business enterprise and plays a critical role in the day-to-day functioning of the enterprise. Any failure in the TPS for a short period of time can play havoc with the functioning of the enterprise. Thus, TPS is an important source of up-to-date information regarding the operations in the enterprise  o Benefits are easily measurable TPS reduces the workload of the people associated with the operations and improves their efficiency by automating some of the operations. Most of these benefits of the TPS are tangible and easily measurable. Therefore, cost benefit analysis regarding the desirability of TPS is easy to conduct. o Large volume of data As TPS is transaction oriented and generally consists of large volumes of data, it requires greater storage capacity. Their primary objective is to ensure that the data regarding the economic events in the enterprises are captured quickly and correctly. 2. PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM (PCS) In this type of system, COMPUTER is used to control ongoing physical processes. The computers are designed to automatically make decisions, which adjust the physical production process. For example: the assembly lines of the automated factories. 3. ENTERPRISE COLLABORATION SYSTEMS (ECS) These systems use a variety of technologies to help people work together It supports collaboration to communicate ideas, share resources & co-ordinate cooperative work efforts. Objective: is to use IT to enhance the productivity and creativity of teams in enterprises. MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEMS (MSS) MSS supports managers in effective decision making by providing relevant and required information at the right time to the right people. These are generally categorized into three types i.e. Management Information System, Decision Support Systems and Executive Information Systems. 3 CATEGORIES: 1. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MIS) David and Olson: o An integrated user-machine system designed for providing information to support operational control, management control and decision-making functions in an organization". OR o MIS is a computer-based system that provides flexible and speedy access to accurate data". MIS enables management at different levels in decision making and problem solving in contrast to TPS, which is operations oriented. They use results produced by the TPS, but they may also use other information. In any organization, DECISIONS must be made on many issues that recur regularly & require a certain amount of information. In turn, the information systems can be developed so that reports are prepared regularly to support these recurring decisions. MIS support the managers at different levels to take strategic (at top level) or tactical (at middle level) management decisions to fulfill the organizational goals. MIS at the top level is much more comprehensive but is condensed/summarized compared to the information provided to those at middle level management. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE MIS 1. Management Oriented o It means that efforts for the development of the Information System should start from an appraisal of management (Top, Middle & Bottom) needs and overall business objectives.  2. Management Directed o Because of management orientation of MIS, it is necessary that management should actively direct the system's development efforts. o For system's effectiveness, it is necessary for management to devote their sufficient time not only at the stage of designing the system but for its review as well to ensure that the implemented system meets the specifications of the designed system. 3. Computerized o Though MIS can be implemented without using a computer; the use of computers increases the effectiveness of the system. o In fact, its use equips the system to handle a wide variety of applications by providing their information requirements quickly. 4. Common Database o Database is the mortar that holds the functional systems together. It is defined as a "super-file", which consolidates & integrates data records formerly stored in many separate data files. o The organization of a database allows it to be accessed by several information sub-systems. 5. Sub System Concept o Even though the information system is viewed as a single entity, it must be broken down into digestible sub-systems, which can be implemented one at a time by developing a phased plan. o The breaking down of MIS into meaningful sub-systems sets the stage for this phasing plan. 6. Integrated o The best approach for developing information systems is the integrated approach as all the functional and operational information subsystems are be tied together into one entity. o An integrated Information system has the capability of generating more meaningful information to management. 7. Heavy Planning Element o An MIS usually takes one to three years and sometimes even longer period to get established firmly within a company. o Therefore, a MIS designer must be present in MIS development and should consider future enterprise objectives and requirements of information as per the organization structure of the enterprise as per requirements. MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MIS 1) Any computer-based information system is a MIS. {CBIS = MIS) 2) Any reporting system is MIS. 3) MIS is a management technique. 4) MIS is a bunch of technologies. 5) The study of MIS is about use of computers. 6) MIS is an implementation of organizational systems and procedures. It is a file structure.  7) More data in generated reports refers more information to managers. 8) Accuracy plays vital role in reporting. PRE-REQUISITES OF AN EFFECTIVE MIS 1. Database o It is collection of files, which is collection of records and records are nothing but collection of data. o The data in database is organized in such a way that accessing to the data is improved and redundancy is reduced. o Characteristics: It is user-oriented. It is capable of being used as a common data source to various users It is available to authorized persons only. It is controlled by a separate authority. i.e. DBMS 2. Qualified System and Management Staff o Officers, who are experts in the field, should understand clearly the views of their fellow officers. o For this, the organizational management base should comprise of two categories of officers: Systems and Computer experts ─ Systems and Computer experts in addition to their expertise in their subject area/s should also be capable of understanding management concepts to facilitate the understanding of problems faced by the concern. Management Experts ─ Management experts should also understand quite clearly the concepts and operations of a computer. 3. Support of Top Management o The support from top management is required for the effectiveness of MIS in an organization. o The reasons for the same are as follows: Any implementation, which does not receive the support of top management will not be effectively controlled and tends to be get lesser priority and may be delayed or abandoned. The resources involved in computer-based information systems are large and are growing larger in view of importance gained by management information system. To gain the support of top management, the officers should place before top management all the supporting facts and state clearly the benefits, which will accrue from it to the concern. 4. Control and maintenance of MIS o Control of the MIS means the operation of the system as it was designed to operate. o Sometime, users develop their own procedures or short cut methods to use the system, which reduce its effectiveness.  To check such habits of users, the management at each level in the organization should devise checks for the information system control. o Maintenance is closely related to control. Formal methods for changing and documenting changes must be provided. EVALUATION OF MIS The evaluation of MIS should take into account the following major points: 1. Examining whether enough flexibility exists in the system to cope with any expected or unexpected information requirement in future. 2. Ascertaining the views of users and the designers about the capabilities and deficiencies of the system. 3. Guiding the appropriate authority about the steps to be taken to maintain effectiveness of MIS CONSTRAINTS IN THE WAY OPERATING A MIS / IS 1. Non-availability of experts, who can diagnose the objectives of the organization and provide a desired direction for installing operating system. 2. Non-availability of cooperation from staff is a crucial problem, which should be handled tactfully. This task should be carried out by organizing lecturers, showing films and also explaining to them the utility of the system. 3. Due to varied objectives of business concerns, the approach adopted by experts for designing and implementing MIS is a non-standardized one. 4. Experts usually face the problem of selecting the sub-system of MIS to be installed and operated upon. The criteria depend upon the need and importance of a function for which MIS can be installed first. LIMITATIONS OF MIS 1. Quality of output is governed by quality of input. 2. MIS may not have requisite flexibility to quickly update itself with the changing needs of time, especially in fast changing and complex environment. 3. MIS cannot provide tailor-made information packages suitable for the purpose of every type of decision made by executives. 4. MIS is less useful for making non-programmed decisions. 5. MIS takes into account mainly quantitative factors (ignores the non - quantitative factors) 6. MIS is not a substitute for effective management, (it cannot replace managerial judgment) 7. The effectiveness of MIS is reduced in enterprises, where the culture of hoarding information and not sharing with other holds. 8. MIS effectiveness decreases due to frequent changes in top management, organizational structure and operational team. 2. DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS) DSS is a type of computerized information system that supports business and organizational decision-making activities. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers to compile useful information from raw data, documents,  personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions. A DSS is not intended to make decisions for managers, but rather to provide managers with a set of capabilities that enable them to generate the information required by them in making decisions. A DSS supports the human decision-making process, rather than a means to replace it. In other words, a DSS can be defined as a system that provides tools to managers to assist them in solving semi-structured and unstructured problems in their own, somewhat personalized, way. CHARACTERISTICS OF DSS 1. Supports decision making and occurs at all levels of management. 2. Focuses on decision rather than data and information. 3. Mainly used for decision making rather than communicating decisions and training purposes. 4. Instead of helping individuals working on independent tasks, it should be able to help group making decisions. 5. should be flexible and adaptable. 6. should be extensible and evolve overtime. 7. can be used for structured problems. 8. should be user-friendly. 9. should be easy to use. A user should not have knowledge of computer programming to generate reports that helps in decision making. 10. The impact of DSS should be on decision where the manager's judgment is essential and there is sufficient structure for computers. COMPONENTS OF DSS 1. THE USER The user of a DSS is usually a manager with an unstructured or semi- structured problem to solve. Typically, users do not need a computer background to use a decision support system for problem solving. 2 Types: a. Manager o These are the users, who have basic computer knowledge and want the DSS to be very user friendly. The manager may be at any level of authority in the  organization (e.g, either top /operating management). b. Staff Specialist (Analysts) o These are the people, who are more details oriented and willing to use complex system in their day-to-day work. 2. DATABASES A DSS includes one or more databases that contain both routine and non-routine data from both internal and external sources. The data from external sources include data about the operating environment of an organization. DSS users may construct additional databases themselves. Some of the data may come from internal sources. An organization often generates this type of data in the normal course of operations. The database may also capture data from other subsystems such as marketing, production, and personnel. Implementation of Database a. Physical level o It involves the implementation of the database on the hard disk i.e. storage of data in the hard disk. o The management of storage and access is controlled by operating system. b. Logical Level o It is designed by professional programs, who have complete knowledge of DBMS. o It deals with the nature of data stored, the scheme of the data. o Storage which is logically divided into various tables having rows and columns and the techniques for defining relationships with indexes. c. External level o The logical level defines schema, which is divided into smaller units known as sub-schemas and given to the managers each sub-schema containing all relevant data needed by one manager. 3. PLANNING LANGUAGES General-purpose PL a. that allow users to perform many routine tasks, for example; retrieving various data from a database or performing statistical b. The languages in most electronic spreadsheets are good examples of general-purpose planning languages. c. These languages enable user to tackle abroad range of budgeting, forecasting, and other worksheet-oriented problems. Special-purpose PL a. are more limited in what they can do, but they usually do certain jobs better than the general-analyses. purpose planning languages.  b. Some statistical languages, such as SAS and SPSS, are examples of special purpose planning languages. 4. Model base The planning language in a DSS allows the user to maintain a dialogue with the model base, which is the "brain" of DSS because it performs data manipulations and computations with the data provided to it by the user and the database. There are many types of model bases, but most of them are custom- developed models that do some types of mathematical functions, For example; cross tabulation, regression analysis, time series analysis, linear programming and financial computations. The analysis provided by the routines in the model base is the key to supporting the user's decision. EXAMPLES OF DSS IN ACCOUNTING: 1. Cost Accounting System 2. Capital Budgeting System 3. Budget Variance Analysis System 4. General Decision Support System 3. EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS) The powerful focus of an EIS is due to the saying "what gets measured gets done." It serves the strategic level i.e. top level managers of the organization. ESS creates a generalized computing and communications environment rather than providing any preset applications or specific competence.  Characteristics of EIS 1. EIS is a CBIS that serves the information need of top executives. 2. EIS enables users to extract summary data and model complex, problems without the need to learn query languages statistical formulas or high computing skills. 3. EIS provides rapid access to timely information and direct access to management reports. 4. EIS is capable of accessing both internal & external data. 5. EIS provides extensive online analysis tool like trend analysis, market conditions etc. 6. EIS can easily be given as a DSS support for decision making. (DSS < EIS) EXECUTIVE DECISION-MAKING ENVIRONMENT The type of decisions that executives must make are very broad. Often, executives make these decisions based on a vision they have regarding 'what it will take to make their enterprise successful.' To a large extent, executives rely much more on their own intuition than on the sophisticated analytical skills. The intuitive character of executive decision making is reflected strongly in the types of information found most useful to executives. Five Characteristics of the types of information used in executive decision making: (F I L L High) 1. Future orientation Strategic-planning decisions are made in order to shape future events. As conditions change, enterprises must change also. 2. Informal Source Executives, more than other types of managers, rely heavily on informal source for key information. 3. Lack of structure Many of the decisions made by executives are relatively unstructured. Also, it is not always obvious, 'which data are required' or 'how to weigh available data when reaching a decision. 4. Low level of detail Most important executive decisions are made by observing broad trends. This requires the executive to be more aware of the large overview than the tiny items. 5. High degree of uncertainty Executives work in a decision space that is often characterized by a lack of precedent. CONTENTS OF EIS ✓ A general answer to the question of 'what data is appropriate for inclusion in an Executive Information System' is: "Whatever is interesting to executives". ✓ EIS implementations begin with just a few measures that are clearly of interest to senior management and then expand in response to questions asked by those managers as they use the system. A PRACTICAL SET OF PRINCIPLES to guide the design of measures and indicators to be included in an EIS: EIS measures must be easy to understand and collect.  Wherever possible, data should be collected naturally as part of the process of work. An EIS should not add substantially to the workload of managers or staff. EIS measures must be based on a balanced view of the organization's objective. Data in the system should reflect the objectives of the organization in the areas of productivity, resource management, quality and customer service. Performance indicators in an EIS must reflect everyone's contribution in a fair and consistent manner. Indicators should be as independent as possible from variables outside the control of managers. OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (OAS) Different office activities can be broadly grouped into the following TYPES OF OPERATIONS: i. Document Capture o Documents originating from outside sources like incoming mails, notes, handouts, charts, graphs etc. need to be preserved. ii. Document Creation o This consists of preparation of documents, dictation, editing of texts etc. and takes up major part of the secretary's time. iii. Receipts and Distribution o This basically includes distribution of correspondence to designated recipients. iv. Filling, Search, Retrieval and Follow up o This is related to filling, indexing, searching of documents, which takes up significant time. v. Calculations o These include the usual calculator functions like routine arithmetic, operations for bill passing, interest calculations, working out the percentages & the like.  vi. Recording Utilization of Resources o This includes, where necessary, record keeping in respect to specific resources utilized by office personnel. Benefit of OAS 1. Office Automation Systems improve communication within an organization and between enterprises. 2. They reduce the cycle time between preparation of messages and receipt of messages at the recipients' end. 3. They also reduce the costs of office communication both in terms of time spent by executives and cost of communication links. 4. Office Automation Systems ensure accuracy of information and smooth flow of communication. 4 CATEGORIES: 1. TEXT PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPS) are the most commonly used components of the OAS. o This is so because a large proportion of the office communication takes place in writing using words of a natural language. TPS automate the process of development of documents such as letters, reports, memos etc. They permit use of standard stored information to produce personalized documents. Automation: i. reduces keying effort and ii. minimizes the chances of errors in the document. The text processor may be simple word processing systems or desktop publishing systems. The desktop publishing systems i. help in quick production of multiple copies of the document with quality printing. ii. are often supported with laser printers, inkjet printers, scanners and other such devices for producing good quality documents. 2. ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EDMS) The computer-based document management systems i. capture the information contained in documents, ii. stored for future reference and iii. make them available to the users as and when required. These systems are linked to the office automation systems such as text processors, electronic message communication systems etc. These systems are very useful in remote access of documents that is almost impossible with manual document management systems, In the case of internal communication, document management systems can prove to be very useful. For example, the loan application form filed in a branch of a bank can be accessed by the sanctioning officer for scrutiny at the head office or any office for scrutiny of loan proposals. With computer-based document management systems, location of the executive becomes irrelevant for access to documents. Thus, these systems can be very useful in an office environment where traveling executives share work space in the office. 3. ELECTRONIC MESSAGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (EMCS) Business enterprises have been using a variety of communication systems for finding and receiving messages. The computer-based message communication systems offer a lot of economy not only in terms of reduced time in sending or receiving the message but also in terms of reliability of the message and cost of communication. Components of Message Communication Systems i. Electronic Mail o Electronic Transmission: delivery is very quick, almost Instantaneous, confirmation of transmission, quick and the reliability is very high o Online Development and Editing message; it can be developed and edited online before transmission o Broadcasting and Rerouting: it permits sending a message to a large number of target recipients o Integration with other Information Systems: o Portability: physical location of the recipient and sender is irrelevant, accessed from Personal computer / tablet / smart phones o Economical: most economical mode, speed of transmission is increasing, reduce time & cost. ii. Facsimile (Fax) o It is electronic communication of images of documents over telephone lines. o The computer based fax technology automates fax communication and permits sharing of fax facilities. o It uses special software and fax servers to send and receive fax messages using common communication resources. o These servers have the ability to receive fax messages and automatically reroute them to the intended recipient after viewing it  at the central computer, similarly, the managers in an enterprise can leave the fax messages to the server which will send it to the intended recipient automatically. iii. Voice Mail o Voice mail is a variation of the email in which messages are transmitted as digitized voice. o The recipient of the voice mail has to dial a voice mail service or access the e-mail box using the specified equipment and he can hear the spoken message in the voice of the sender. o The secured type of voice mail service may require the recipient to enter identification code before the access is granted to the stored information. 4. TELECONFERENCING AND VIDEO-CONFERENCING SYSTEMS (TVS) Teleconferencing o is conducted in a business meeting involving more than two persons located at two or more different places. o helps in reducing the time and cost of meeting as the participants do not have to travel to attend the meeting. o may be audio or video conferencing with or without use of computer systems. The computer based teleconferencing has the advantage of flexibility in terms of pre-recorded presentations and integration with other information systems. These systems are based on Personal computers featuring a digital camera and run on visual communication software. The communication links are still quite expensive making the desktop video conferencing useful only for selected applications. OTHER INFORMATION SYSTEMS 1. EXPERT SYSTEM (ES) is highly developed DSS that utilizes knowledge generally possessed by an expert to share a problem. are software systems that imitate the reasoning processes of human experts and provide decision makers with the type of advice they would normally receive from such expert systems. Characteristic of Expert Systems: o is the ability to declare or explain the reasoning process that was used to make decisions. Some of the business applications of Expert Systems are: i. Accounting and Finance ii. Marketing  iii. Manufacturing iv. Personnel (HRM) v. General Business NEED OF EXPERT SYSTEMS i. Expert labor is expensive and scarce. Knowledge workers employee, who routinely work with data and information to carry out their day-to-day duties are not easy to find and keep and companies are often faced with a shortage of talent in key positions. ii. Moreover, no matter how bright or knowledgeable certain people are, they often can handle only a few factors at a time. iii. Both these limitations imposed by human information processing capability and the rushed pace at which business is conducted today put a practical limit on the quality of human decision making this putting a need for expert systems. BENEFITS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS i. ESs preserve knowledge that might be lost through retirement, resignation or death of an acknowledged company expert. ii. ESs put information into an active-form so it can be summoned almost as a real- life expert might be summoned. iii. ESs assist novices in thinking the way experienced professional do. iv. ESs are not subjected to such human fallings as fatigue, being too busy, or being emotional. v. ESs can be effectively used as a strategic tool in the areas of marketing products, cutting costs and improving products. PROPERTIES THAT POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS SHOULD POSSESS TO QUALIFY AS EXPERT SYSTEM: i. Availability o One or more experts are capable of communicating 'how they go about solving the problems to which the Expert System will be applied.' ii. Complexity o Solution of the problems for which the Expert Systems will be used is a complex task that requires logical inference processing, which would not be easily handled by conventional information processing. iii. Domain o The domain, or subject area, of the problem is relatively small and limited to a relatively well-defined problem area. iv. Expertise o Solutions to the problem require the efforts of experts. That is, only a few possess the knowledge, techniques, and intuition needed. v. Structure o The solution process must be able to cope with ill-structured, uncertain, missing, and conflicting data, and a dynamic problem-solving situation. 2. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (KMS) These are knowledge-based systems that support the conception, association and propagation of business knowledge within the enterprise. 3. FUNCTIONAL BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMS (FBIS) These systems supports the operational and managerial applications of the basic enterprises of an industry.  4. STRATEGIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (SIS) These systems provide an industry strategic products, services and capabilities for competitive advantage. 5. CROSS FUNCTIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (CFIS) It is also known as integrated information system that combines most of information systems and are designed to produce information and support decision making for different levels of management and business functions. BUSINESS AND ENTERPRISES WHERE IS AND IT ARE POPULAR Accounting Information System comprises of the processes, procedures, and systems that: o capture accounting data from business processes; o record the accounting data in the appropriate records; o process the detailed accounting data by classifying, summarizing and consolidating the report the summarized accounting data to internal and external users. Many years ago, accounting information systems were paper-based journals and ledgers that were recorded manually by employees. Today, nearly every enterprise uses computer systems for maintaining records in its accounting information system. THE KEY STEPS OF A TYPICAL ACCOUNTING IS ARE GIVEN AS FOLLOWS: 1. Work steps within a business process intended to capture accounting data; 2. The manual or computer-based records to record the accounting data; 3. Work steps that are internal controls; 4. Work steps to process, classify, summarize, and consolidate the raw accounting data; and 5. Work steps that generate both internal and external reports.