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CHAPTER 1 REVIEWER ✓ Integration - Ensures that all components function together Systems Analysis and Design Overview as a cohesive unit....

CHAPTER 1 REVIEWER ✓ Integration - Ensures that all components function together Systems Analysis and Design Overview as a cohesive unit. - Synergistic Effect: Successful integration ❑ Systems Approach produces a greater overall impact than if Applying systems thinking to analyze and design components worked independently. solutions using computer-based systems. Systems thinking involves understanding the whole system, ✓ Central Objective including its components and their interactions. - The primary goal of the system. It guides the design and function of the system. ✓ Systems - orderly grouping of interdependent - Understanding the central objective is components designed to achieve a specific crucial for successful system design and objective. implementation. ✓ Subsystems - Smaller systems within a larger system, which must work together to achieve ❑ System Components the system’s overall goal. ✓ Interrelationships - How components and ✓ Inputs subsystems interact with and affect each other. - Elements that enter the system for processing ✓ Integration - Ensures that all parts of the (e.g., data, resources). system work together harmoniously to achieve ✓ Processor the central objective. - The component that transforms inputs into outputs (e.g., a computer’s CPU). ❑ Systems Theory Foundations - Modifies input based on specifications to produce the desired output. ✓ Ludwig von Bertalanffy (General ✓ Control Systems Theory) -Guides and regulates the system’s operations. - Emphasized that systems are collections of - Management controls the flow of activities interrelated components working together to and decisions. achieve a common goal. Applied to various - The operating system and software influence fields like biology, social systems, and system behavior. technology. ✓ Feedback - Information about output used to adjust ✓ Norbert Wiener (Information Theory) inputs or processing. - Focused on how information and → Positive Feedback - Reinforces system communication systems can unify different performance. elements. His work laid the groundwork for → Negative Feedback - Provides information understanding electronic systems and their for corrective actions. parallels with human systems. - Helps in evaluating and improving system performance. ✓ Herbert A. Simon (Decision-Making in Organizations) ❑ System Boundaries and Interfaces - Related systems theory to organizational behavior, viewing organizations as systems that ✓ Boundaries process information to make decisions. - Limits that define the scope and extent of a system. ❑ Key Characteristics of Systems - A teller system in a bank has boundaries separating it from other systems like mortgage ✓ Organization processing. - The arrangement of components and their ✓ Interface relationships within a system. Example: An - Points of interaction between different organizational chart illustrates the systems. hierarchy and flow of authority within a company. - Integration between teller and mortgage systems allows for transactions involving ✓ Interaction customer accounts. - How system components work together. For example, in a company, different departments must interact to function effectively. ❑ Types of Systems ✓ Physical Systems ✓ Interdependence - Tangible entities that can be static or dynamic. - Components depend on each other. For - Physical components of a computer center instance, one department’s output might be (desks, chairs) vs. dynamic components another’s input. (programmed computers).  ✓ Abstract Systems - Relies on computers for business applications. - Conceptual entities representing relationships - Systems analysis heavily depends on or models. computer technology. - Formulas or conceptual models that represent physical or theoretical systems. ❑ Categories of Information ✓ Systems Models - Two-dimensional charts showing system ✓ Strategic Information elements and their connections. - Used for long-term planning by top ✓ Flow System Models management. - Show how materials, energy, and information - Market trends, financial forecasts. flow through a system (e.g., PERT charts). - Tools: Decision Support Systems (DSS). ✓ Static System Models ✓ Managerial Information - Depict fixed relationships (e.g., Gantt charts - Used for short- to intermediate-term planning showing activity schedules). by middle management. ✓ Dynamic System Models - Sales reports, financial statements. - Represent systems that are continuously - Tools: Management Information Systems changing (e.g., ongoing business operations). ✓ Operational Information - Used for daily operations and management. ❑ Characteristics of Open Systems - Employee absences, stock levels. - Tools: Data Processing Systems (DPS). ✓ Input from Outside - Open systems adjust and regulate themselves ❑ Types of Decision Making based on external inputs to maintain ✓ Structured Decision Making equilibrium. - Involves clear procedures and routine - Retail firms adjust prices or costs based on operations. Examples: inventory management, changes in merchandise costs. payroll processing. ✓ Entropy ✓ Unstructured Decision Making - The tendency of systems to decline over time. - Lacks clear procedures; involves judgment Open systems resist entropy by adapting to and experience. Examples: strategic planning, maintain stability. crisis management. - Businesses adapt to avoid insolvency by responding to changes in the market. ❑ Managerial Levels ✓ Process, Output, and Cycles ✓ Operational/Lower-Level Management - Open systems produce outputs and operate in - Focus on day-to-day activities. Decisions are cycles, following continuous processes. routine, structured, and supported by ✓ Differentiation computer systems. - Increasing specialization and complexity ✓ Tactical/Middle-Level Management within the system. - Focus on coordinating activities to meet - Business roles and functions become more organizational goals. Decisions are semi- specialized over time. structured, involving a mix of routine and non- ✓ Equifinality routine elements. - Achieving goals through various methods or ✓ Strategic/Upper-Level Management paths. - Focus on long-term goals and strategies. - Different strategies can lead to the same Decisions are mostly unstructured, requiring business outcome. creativity, judgment, and less routine information. ❑ Information Systems Categories ❑ Information Characteristics ✓ Formal Information Systems ✓ Lower-Level Management - Based on organizational structures and - Needs detailed, accurate, and structured authority relationships. information. Example: daily sales reports, - Uses formal channels like memos and reports. employee schedules. ✓ Informal Information Systems ✓ Middle-Level Management - Based on informal networks and personal - Needs summarized information with some communication. flexibility. Example: monthly performance - Employee-based, developed to meet personal reports, project timelines. and vocational needs. ✓ Upper-Level Management - Helps solve work-related problems. - Needs broad, flexible information that - Funnels information upward through indirect supports strategic decision-making. Example: channels. market trends, competitive analysis. - Useful within the business framework and policies. ❑ Designing an Information System ✓ Computer-Based Information Systems - Consider the type and level of information needed - Use technology to manage and process for different managerial roles. information for various purposes.  - Ensure the system can provide structured ✓ Advantages information for lower levels and more flexible, less 1. Reduces processing time and programs. structured information for higher levels. 2. Centralized file sharing. - Account for the dynamic nature of unstructured 3. Eliminates storage duplication. decision-making at the upper management level by ✓ Disadvantages including tools that can handle incomplete or 1. High cost for specialized staff. uncertain information. 2. Need for data security. ❑ Structured Decision Making ❑ Primary Users of MIS - Related to closed, stable, mechanistic → Middle and Top Management processes. - Forecasts, special analysis, long-term plans, - Computational, routine, used for planning and periodic reports. control. → Operational Managers - Associated with lower-level management. - Short-term planning, periodic and exception - Supported by computer systems. reports. → Support Staff ❑ Unstructured Decision Making - Special analysis, reporting for planning and - Related to open, adaptive, dynamic processes. control. - Increased uncertainty and lack of structure. - Difficult to secure computer support. ❑ MIS Issues - Involves extra organizational and incomplete - Reports can be outdated. information. - Databases may not align with user needs. - Incomplete updates affect reliability. ❑ System Analyst Considerations - Resistance from staff fearing job threats. - Must understand the chain of command and power-authority-influence network. ✓ Analyst’s Challenge - Knowledge of employee-based systems is - Must balance technology understanding crucial during analysis. with human behavior to secure support and - Employee cooperation is key to preventing ensure success. sabotage and ensuring system success. - Proper interface with informal channels is ❑ Decision Support Systems (DSS) critical for reliable information. - Provides more support for top management's decision-making. ❑ Management Information System - Uses operations research and computer- - Computers greatly affect how management aided models. operates businesses. - Helps solve unstructured problems. ✓ Managerial Levels - Evolved from early management decision → Lower-Level - Needs detailed internal data systems. for daily, structured decisions. - Current Views: Seen as either an advanced → Higher-Level - Requires summarized data form of MIS, independent of MIS, or a from various sources for long-term goals. subset of MIS. ✓ Effective Information ✓ DSS Features - Must be accurate, relevant, complete, → Interactive Capabilities concise, and timely. - Includes data analysis and decision modeling. ✓ MIS Overview → Supports All Levels - A person-machine system that integrates - Particularly useful for top management in information-processing functions. "what if" scenarios. - Provides a comprehensive view of specific ✓ Analyst’s Role operations. - Analyze existing DSS packages and their - Operates in real-time, handling inquiries features. quickly. - Understand differences from MIS. ✓ Operational Requirements - Upgrade knowledge to meet evolving DSS - File definition, maintenance, updating, demands. transaction and inquiry processing. - Linked to an organizational database to ❑ Decision-Making Model (Herbert Simon) minimize data redundancy. ✓ Phases ✓ Database 1. Intelligence - Recognize and evaluate the - Nonredundant, interrelated data items problem. processed through application programs. 2. Design - Assess and design decision - Accessible via a database management alternatives. system, allowing shared data use. 3. Choice - Select the best solution. ❑ Database Management System (DBMS) - Manages physical database activities.  ✓ Intelligence Phase → Problem Identification - Investigate the real causes behind symptoms. - High auto accidents due to factors like discontinued inspections or lower drinking age. → DSS Role - Provides data and statistical analysis for better understanding.\ ✓ Design Phase → Alternative Evaluation - Use models to assess different solutions. → DSS Role - Assists in evaluating options under uncertainty. ✓ Choice Phase → Decision Making - Select the best solution based on evaluation. ❑ Systems Concept ✓ Understanding Systems - Essential for designing computer-based systems for business needs. ✓ Human Resource Information System (HRIS) → Environmental Factors - Competitors, geographic, sociocultural, political, economic factors, regulations. → Organizational Factors - Goals, structure, tools, policies, resources. ✓ HRIS Components → Outputs - Employee performance measurement. → Inputs - Hiring criteria (job analysis, planning, recruitment, selection). → Processes 1. Productivity-Inducing - Career planning, motivation, training, pay, incentives, appraisal. 2. Productivity-Maintaining - Job requirements, management development, safety, labor relations, counseling. ✓ Analyst’s Role - Understand personnel roles, external factors, and computerization opportunities. - Facilitate change by understanding personnel dynamics and organizational needs.  ❑ Feasibility Study: Chapter 2: Quick Notes ✓ Purpose: To assess a system proposal's workability, impact, resource use, and ability to ❑ Recognition of Need meet user needs. ✓ Problem Identification: Recognizing the ✓ Key Questions: need to improve an information system or o What are the users' needs, and how does procedure. the system meet them? o Example: A supervisor may investigate o What resources are available, and is the purchasing system flow, or a bank problem worth solving? president may address long lines at the o What will be the system's impact on the drive-in. organization, and how does it fit within ✓ Preliminary Survey: Conducted to explore the organization's plan? alternative solutions to the problem. ✓ Objective: Not to solve the problem but to o Focus Areas: Duplication of effort, understand its scope, define it clearly, and bottlenecks, inefficiencies, or potential estimate costs and benefits. computerization. ✓ Outcome: A formal proposal detailing the ✓ Analyst's Role: problem, findings, recommendations, and o Prepare a statement specifying the scope details of the candidate system. and objective of the problem. ❑ Analysis o Estimate project development costs and accurate costs for the feasibility study ✓ Purpose: A detailed study to understand how a phase. system operates and interacts with other systems to identify what needs to be done to ❑ Impetus for System Change solve a problem. ✓ External Sources: Ideas for change originate ✓ Steps in Analysis: from customers, vendors, or government o Define Boundaries: Determine the regulations. limits of the system and whether related o Example: New unemployment systems should be considered. o Data Collection: Gather information regulations requiring changes in on files, decision points, and reporting procedures or customer complaints about delivery schedules. transactions. ✓ Internal Sources: Changes can be prompted o Tools: Use methods such as data flow by management, users, or analysts. diagrams, interviews, observations, and o Examples: Acquisitions, branching questionnaires. o Interview Skills: Requires careful out, budget issues, or high labor attention to avoid bias in data collection turnover. ✓ Management's Role: Initiates investigations and interpretation. in response to serious operational problems. ✓ Outcome: Understanding the problem and moving to the design phase to solve it. ❑ User-Originated Ideas ❑ Design ✓ User Detection: Users, such as a bank's head ✓ Purpose: Develop the final system and create teller, may notice operational issues. technical specifications for implementation. o Example: Long customer lines leading ✓ Key Question: How should the problem be to an investigation of causes. solved? ✓ Conversion to Feasibility Study: ✓ Steps: o Factors: Risks, returns, management o Determine Output: Define how the bias, costs, available funds, project output will be produced and formatted. priorities, and user’s persuasive ability. o Design Input Data: Create input data ✓ Analyst's Advantage: structures and master files to meet o Unique position to detect and output requirements. recommend change. o Program Construction and o Experience and involvement in the Testing: Develop and test programs, user's area add credibility to create documentation. suggestions. o Justification and Impact: Document the system's justification, estimate its impact on users and the organization. o Final Report: Include flowcharts, record and report layouts, and an implementation plan. Provide cost  estimates for personnel, hardware, and ✓ Enhancements: Adding new features or facilities. significant changes (e.g., creating a loan for ✓ Roles: overdrafts). o Separate Programming: Analysis ❑ Project Termination and programming may be handled by → A system project can be dropped at any stage, different people. but it becomes more complex and costly after o Analyst Responsibilities: Ensure the design phase. Projects may be terminated if: procedures, documentation, security, o The design cannot meet new or changing and auditing are completed. user requirements. o The benefits don't justify the costs. ❑ Implementation o Budget or cost estimates exceed the → The implementation phase is when the new available resources. system is put into operation. This phase focuses o The project significantly overruns time and on training users, preparing the necessary cost estimates. infrastructure, and converting old data to the new system. It also includes making sure that ❑ System Failure the system works correctly through testing and handling any issues that come up. Key tasks → A new system might fail to meet user needs due to: include: o Unclear or misunderstood requirements. ▫ Training users on how to use the new o Lack of user involvement in development. system. o Inexperienced analysts or programmers. ▫ Preparing sites and networks where the o Insufficient time for feasibility and design. system will be used. o Poor user training. ▫ Testing the system to ensure it works o Inadequate hardware. properly. o Loss of useful features from the old system. ▫ Running both the old and new systems in o User-unfriendly design. parallel, if needed, to ensure a smooth o Changes in user requirements or staff transition. resistance. ✓ Implementation Phase: Less creative, focuses on user training, site preparation, file ❑ Considerations for Candidate Systems conversion, and telecommunication network → Businesses face high demand for computer testing. services, which includes: ✓ User Training: Essential and may be o Operating existing systems. extensive, depending on the system. o Maintenance (often over 50% of ✓ Conversion: Happens during or after user maintenance work). training. o Enhancements (major modifications). ✓ Programmers' Role: Important to include o Requests for new systems. them in system design as they provide a reality check for design assumptions. ✓ System Testing: Ensures the system can ❑ Resource Allocation access, update, and retrieve data correctly. Test → Balancing these demands involves human, data is processed to find and fix errors. financial, and technological resources. The ✓ Parallel Run: New system runs alongside the computer department needs: old one to ensure accuracy and provide user o Operators experience; not always practical. o Data entry personnel ✓ Phasing Out: The old system is discontinued o Systems analysts once the new system is confirmed to work o Programmers (for both development and properly. maintenance) o Supervisors and managers ❑ Post-Implementation & Maintenance → Begins after installation and involves system ❑ Factors for Favoring Projects evaluation and ongoing maintenance. ✓ Technical: Ability to handle the project, ✓ Periodic Maintenance: Ensures hardware availability of skilled personnel, or the need to and software stay aligned with design outsource. specifications. ✓ Behavioral: User's experience with existing ✓ System Evaluation: Identifies inconsistencies systems, analyst's success record, and the user's and requires changes if the system does not meet influence on management. the original design. ✓ Economic: Potential return on investment ✓ Maintenance: Routine updates (e.g., (ROI). A commonly acceptable ROI is around increasing service charges). 20%.  ✓ Political Considerations: Politics can ii. Develop Prototype: Build a simple, influence system project decisions, often working model focusing on key overriding objective analysis. For instance, a functions. proposal might be chosen not based on its merits iii. User Feedback: Have users test the but due to the influence of a powerful supporter. prototype, suggest changes, and refine ✓ Political Impact: it. o Influence: Managers may favor a project iv. Iterate: Repeat the process with supported by influential figures even if it's updated prototypes until user needs are not the most justified. fully met. o Collaboration: Engaging users early in the system development process can reduce ✓ Benefits: resistance and improve acceptance. o Shorter Development Time: Faster than o Strategy: Anticipate and address potential traditional methods. resistance early to build support and avoid o Accurate Requirements: Better political interference. alignment with user needs. o Increased User Participation: Users are ❑ Planning and Control for System Success more involved and supportive. → To ensure a system project is successful, careful planning and control are essential. This involves creating a detailed plan, forming a project team, and breaking the project into manageable phases. ✓ Key Steps: 1. Develop a Plan: Outline procedures, methodology, resources, costs, and a timetable. 2. Form a Project Team: Include analysts, programmers, consultants, and user reps for effective collaboration. 3. Divide the Project: Break into manageable modules for analysis, design, and implementation. ✓ Levels of Control: o Tasks: Small, well-defined units of work, budgeted and scheduled individually. o Activities: Groups of related tasks within a phase. o Phases: Major milestones that mark project progress. ✓ Planning Steps: a. Identify activities and tasks for each phase. b. Calculate and agree on the budget for each phase. c. Review and summarize progress periodically. d. Prepare monthly project progress reports. ❑ Prototyping → is an advanced technique used to overcome problems in traditional system development, such as long development times and mismatched system requirements. It involves creating a basic version of a system, testing it with users, and refining it through iterative improvements. ✓ Basic Steps: i. Identify Requirements: Determine what users need and how they will use the system. Chapter 3: Reviewer ❑ What does it take to do System Analysis ❑ System Analyst ✓ Skills Needed: ✓ Analyst Role: Evolving with technology. o Interpersonal Skills: Essential for o Definition (Random House): A person working with people, establishing trust, and who methodically studies and evaluates a effective communication. business to identify and achieve objectives. o Technical Skills: Focus on the procedures o Definition (Nicholas): An analyst's task is and techniques needed for operations to understand needs and constraints, analysis, systems analysis, and computer translating them into workable operations. science. ✓ Interpersonal Skills: ❑ Early Years Analyst o Communication: Ability to clearly ✓ Origin: Systems analysis traces back to articulate and connect with users at all Frederick Taylor's work in the late 1890s. levels. ✓ Taylor's Four Key Steps: o Understanding: Grasping company goals o Create an ideal method for tasks, with and the impact of systems on people. incentives for exceeding standards. o Teaching: Educating and supporting users o Select and train the best person for the job. in using computer systems. o Combine scientific methods with well- o Selling: Promoting ideas and innovations trained workers. using computers. o Ensure cooperation between managers and o Questioning Attitude: Being curious and workers. inquiring about how a system works. ✓ Problems with Taylorism: ❑ Phases of System Development: o Focused mainly on physical tasks, ignoring ✓ Analysis Phase: High need for interpersonal human behavior. skills to work with users and understand their o Assumed money is the main motivator and requirements. that workers need close supervision. ✓ Design Phase: Emphasis on technical skills for ✓ Later Developments: system design, though interpersonal skills still o Theorists like Maslow adapted Taylor's matter for user interaction. methods, considering psychological needs. ✓ Implementation Phase: Both skills are o Recognized that people, not just machines, important for proving the software and training make the system work. users. ✓ Early Analysts: Worked in factories, focusing ✓ Maintenance Phase: Analyst's role lessens on improving work methods and setting unless problems arise. production standards. ✓ Pre-WWI: Factories were labor-intensive. ❖ Conclusion ✓ Post-WWI: → A good systems analyst combines both o Labor shortages led to automation, making interpersonal and technical skills to successfully production faster and cheaper. develop and implement systems. o Unions, higher wages, and production costs created a need for analysts to improve ✓ Education working conditions and set standards. o Most analysts are college graduates, often o Analysts developed training programs for with majors in accounting, management, or untrained workers. information systems. ✓ 1950s-1960s: o Universities increasingly offer specialized o Continued focus on improving factory programs in systems analysis, project efficiency. management, and database design. o 1960s: Analysts shifted to cost-benefit ✓ Experience and Knowledge analyses for military systems and inventory o Systems Theory and Organizational control for weapons. Behavior: Understanding these helps in o Rise of commercial computers prompted analyzing and designing systems. organizations to seek analysts who could o Application Areas: Familiarity with fields solve problems using computer-based like accounting, marketing, and operations applications. management is crucial.  o Skill: Requires sensitivity and effective o System Tools and Programming communication to handle interpersonal Languages: Competence in tools, issues and feedback. methodologies, and programming languages ✓ Salesperson: is essential. o Analysts must effectively sell the system at o Hardware and Software: Experience in every stage, using strong presentation and specifying and selecting hardware and persuasion skills. software. ✓ Motivator: ✓ Personal Attributes (from Awad's study): o Analysts need to motivate users, ensure o Authority: Confidence to lead and manage effective training, and handle resistance, projects. especially after implementation and during o Communication Skills: Ability to clearly staff changes. articulate problems and solutions. ✓ Politician Role o Creativity: Willingness to innovate and try o Goal: Gain support from all parties new methods. involved. o Responsibility: Ability to make and own o Skills: Diplomacy, finesse, and decisions. appeasement. o Varied Skills: Adaptability and ability to o Objective: Align user goals with system handle different projects. goals through computerization. ❖ Conclusion ❑ Analyst Characteristics → These academic qualifications and personal ✓ Traits: Orderly, logical, methodical, and detail- attributes help define the role of a systems oriented. analyst and distinguish it from traditional ✓ Behavior: Factual, objective, and predictable. programming. ✓ Strengths: Methodical approach, good at model building, performs well in structured ❑ Multifaceted Roles of System Analyst settings. ✓ Change Agent: ✓ Weaknesses: Tunnel vision, inflexibility, and o Role: Introduces changes with new systems. overplanning. o User Acceptance: Crucial for successful implementation. ❑ Analyst-User Interface o Styles: Varies from persuader (gentle) to ✓ Importance: Crucial for system success; imposer (forceful), depending on the requires equal focus as technical aspects. situation. ✓ Issue: More users increase the risk of failure ✓ Investigator and Monitor: without a strong analyst-user relationship. o Investigator: Identifies the root causes of ✓ Historical Context: In the 1960s, analysts problems in current systems and uncovers imposed changes and had limited user new trends. involvement. o Monitor: Ensures projects stay within time, ✓ Evolution: User-friendly technology and cost, and quality constraints. analyst maturity improved user participation o Importance of Time: Delays can lead to and reduced the cultural gap. increased costs, wasted resources, and ❑ Behavioral Issues frustrated users. ✓ User Motivation: Understanding what drives ✓ Architect: users is crucial for system success. o Role: Acts as a liaison between user o Satisfaction of Needs: Systems must requirements (abstract) and detailed system meet user needs for acceptance. design. o Lucas's Model: User behavior is o Function: Creates a detailed physical influenced by attitudes, personal factors, design and helps formalize user ideas. and situational contexts. ✓ Psychologist: o Expectancy Theory: o Role: Understands and manages people's o Effort-Performance Link: Users emotions and behaviors. will invest effort if they believe it will improve performance.  o Performance-Rewards Link: o Authority Relationships: Defines the Motivation increases if rewards are authority from higher management to tied to performance and valued by subordinates. o Activities: General pattern of activities users. carried out by employees at each level. o Task Design: Systems should align with users' tasks for better acceptance. ✓ Chain of Command: o Extends from manager to subordinate. ✓ Analyst/User Differences: Recognizing and o Direct line of authority from the director of bridging gaps in perspectives and expectations MIS services to supervisors in charge of analysis and design, programming, and between analysts and users. operations. o Surface Differences: Education, o This direct line of authority allows experience, and language gaps cause supervisors to command subordinates to conflicts. carry out their tasks effectively. o Expectations: Users often have unrealistic expectations; analysts may disregard user comfort. o Defensive Behavior: Users may mask ignorance; analysts may focus too much on technical aspects. o Preoccupation with Costs: Analysts may prioritize costs and technical sophistication over user comfort. o Cognitive Styles: Mismatched cognitive styles (analytical vs. heuristic) can hinder system design success. Aligning system design with user’s cognitive style improves acceptance. ✓ Political Factor: Navigating organizational politics can affect system development and acceptance. ❑ Conflict Resolution ✓ Systemeering: Integrate user concerns into the system life cycle for effective system development. ✓ Adaptation: Analysts should adjust their style to match user personality factors. ✓ Commitment: Ensure agreement to prevent future conflicts. ✓ Boeing’s DDR: A binding agreement that aligns analysts and users on requirements and acceptance, improving communication and bridging knowledge gaps. ❑ The MIS Organization ✓ Organizing Function: o Grouping and assigning work elements to appropriate areas. o Assigning tasks, dividing work into specific jobs, and defining relationships among them. ✓ Structure: o Supervisory Levels: Different levels of supervision.