Infants and Children, 9th Edition PDF

NINTH EDITION Infants and Children PRENATAL THROUGH MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Laura E. Berk Brief Contents P A R T I THEORY AND RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies 2 P A R T I I FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT 2 Geneti...

NINTH EDITION Infants and Children PRENATAL THROUGH MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Laura E. Berk Brief Contents P A R T I THEORY AND RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies 2 P A R T I I FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations 50 3 Prenatal Development 86 4 Birth and the Newborn Baby 116 P A R T I I I INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD: THE FIRST TWO YEARS 5 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 152 6 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 196 7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 240 P A R T I V EARLY CHILDHOOD: TWO TO SIX YEARS 8 Physical Development in Early Childhood 280 9 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 306 10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood 354 P A R T V MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: SIX TO ELEVEN YEARS 11 Physical Development in Middle Childhood 404 12 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 430 13 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood 476  Infants and Children Prenatal Through Middle Childhood N I N T H E D I T I O N Laura E. Berk Illinois State University  In memory of Richard J. Payne Distinguished Professor of Politics and Government, Illinois State University Treasured friend, colleague, and fellow Pearson author Executive Portfolio Manager: Ed Parsons Cover Designer: Joel Gendron, Lumina Datamatics Manager, Content Strategy: Pamela Chirls Full-Service Vendor: Pearson CSC Managing Editor: Tom Pauken Composition Specialist: Jeff Miller Senior Producer: Katharine Glynn Copyeditor and References Editor: Josephine Cepeda Assistant Editor: Rachel Trapp-Gardner Proofreader: Karen Jones Development Editors: David Chodoff, Judy Ashkenaz Indexer: Linda Herr Hallinger Editorial Assistant: Kaylee Navarra Printer/Binder: LSC Communications, Inc. Full-Service Project Management: Cover Printer: Phoenix Color, Hagerstown Pearson CSC, Monica Moosang Cover Art: “We Are in the Forest,” Soumita Banerjee, Digital Producer: Elissa Senra-Sargent 8 years, India. Reprinted with permission from Director, Product Marketing: Brad Parkins the International Museum of Children’s Art, Photo Researcher: Sarah Evertson—ImageQuest Oslo, Norway. Interior Designer: Carol Somberg Copyright © 2021 and 2016 Laura E. Berk. Copyrights © 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002, 1999, 1996, 1993 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. 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Library of Congress Control Number: 2019919487 ScoutAutomatedPrintCode Rental Edition ISBN 10: 0-13-663671-3 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-663671-7 Instructor’s Review Edition ISBN 10: 0-13-549697-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-549697-8 Revel Access Card ISBN 10: 0-13-549691-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-549691-6 About the Author Laura E. Berk is a distinguished professor of psychology at ­Illinois State University, where she has taught child, adoles- cent, and lifespan development for more than three decades. She received her bachelor’s degree in psychology from the ­University of California, Berkeley, and her master’s and doc- toral degrees in child development and educational psychology from the University of Chicago. She has been a visiting scholar at Cornell University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the ­University of South Australia. Berk has published widely on the effects of school envi­ ronments on children’s development, the development of private speech, and the role of make-believe play in develop- ment. Her empirical studies have attracted the attention of the general public, leading to contributions to Psychology Today and Scientific American. She has also been featured on National Public Radio’s Morning Edition and in Parents Magazine, Wondertime, and Reader’s Digest. Berk has served as a research editor of Young Children, a consulting editor for Early Childhood Research Quarterly, and an associate editor of the Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology. She is a frequent contributor to edited volumes, having written the article on social development in The Child: An Encyclopedic Companion and the article on Vygotsky in The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. She is coauthor of the chapter on make-believe play and self-regulation in the Sage Handbook of Play in Early Childhood and the chapter on psychologists writing textbooks in Career Paths in Psychology: Where Your Degree Can Take You, published by the American Psychological Association. Berk’s books include Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation; Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education; A Mandate for Playful Learning in Preschool: Presenting the Evidence; and Awakening Children’s Minds: How Parents and Teachers Can Make a Difference. In addition to Infants and Children, she is author of the best-selling texts Exploring Child and Adolescent Development, Child Development, Development Through the Lifespan, and Exploring Lifespan Development, published by Pearson. Berk is active in work for children’s causes. She serves on the governing boards of the Illinois Network of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies and of Artolution, an organization devoted to engaging children, youths, and families in community-based public art projects around the world as a means of promoting trauma relief and resilience. She is also founding donor of Illinois Art Sta­tion, an initiative that provides educative and self-expressive experiences in the visual arts to children, adolescents, and their families in her community, with a special focus on reaching under- served and at-risk young people, while enriching student and faculty opportunities across disciplines. Berk has been designated a YWCA Woman of Distinction for her service in education. She is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, Division 7: Developmental Psychology. Features at a Glance BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling: Do’s and Don’ts for a Healthy Pregnancy 113 Implications for Early Self-Concept 357 Soothing a Crying Baby 139 Resilient Children 10 Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of How Couples Can Ease the Transition to The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic Transmission Physical Punishment 374 ­Parenthood 147 of Maternal Stress to Children 83 The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains Reasons to Breastfeed 168 Self-Regulation Therapy for Children with Fetal in IQ 454 Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) 103 Play Materials That Support Infant and Toddler Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Cognitive Development 210 Parental Depression and Child ­Development 146 Children 514 Features of a High-Quality Home Life for Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on ­Infants and Toddlers: The HOME Infant–­ Children with Brain Injury 161 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Toddler Subscales 223 “Tuning in” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Worldwide Education of Girls: Transforming Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Infant Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Current and Future Generations 68 and Toddler Child Care 225 Learning 185 Baby Learning from Screen Media: The Video Supporting Early Language Learning 236 Infantile Amnesia 216 Deficit Effect 206 Encouraging Affectionate Ties Between Infants Thiamine Deficiency in the First Year and Children’s Gestures Facilitate Cognitive and Their Preschool Siblings 269 Later Language Impairment 229 Change 315 Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Development of Shyness and Sociability 252 Teaching Through Guided Play 339 Self-Control 275 Childhood Poverty and Brain Development 286 School Recess—A Time to Play, a Time to Encouraging Good Nutrition in Early Autism and Theory of Mind 332 Learn 427 ­Childhood 290 Transgender Children 390 Magnet Schools: Equal Access to High-Quality Reducing Unintentional Injuries in Early Education 466 ­Childhood 295 Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 437 Enhancing Make-Believe Play in Early SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH ­Childhood 310 Bullies and Their Victims 497 Family Chaos Undermines Children’s Well- Supporting Emergent Literacy in Early Being 28 ­Childhood 335 CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Early Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New ­Technologies 60 Childhood Programs 342 Land 36 The Nurse–Family Partnership: ­Reducing Helping Children Manage Common Fears of Familism Promotes Competence in Hispanic ­Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Early Childhood 361 Children and Youths 75 ­Development Through Social Support 110 Positive Parenting 375 Culturally Sensitive Prenatal Health Care: The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Regulating Screen Media Use 381 ­Perspectives of Expectant Mothers 112 Death Syndrome 138 Strategies for Fostering Healthy Lifestyles in A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care Lead Exposure and Children’s Development 167 School-Age Children 419 and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 132 Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attach- Providing Developmentally Appropriate ment Security and Later Adjustment? 266 ­Organized Sports in Middle Childhood 425 Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping ­Arrangements 165 Otitis Media and Development 293 Signs of High-Quality Education in Elementary Family Stressors and Childhood Obesity 413 School 463 Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 220 Children’s Eyewitness Testimony 516 Fostering a Growth Mindset About Ability and The Role of Fathers’ Involvement in Children’s a Mastery-Oriented Approach to Learning 484 Development 268 APPLYING WHAT WE KNOW Helping Children Adjust to Their Parents’ Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Divorce 509 Advanced in Drawing Skills? 300 Steps Prospective Parents Can Take Before Resources That Foster Resilience in Middle Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe ­Conception to Increase the Chances of a Childhood 517 and Participate in Adult Work 322 Healthy Baby 63 iv Contents A Personal Note to Students xi P A R T I I Preface for Instructors xii FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT P A R T I chapte r 2 THEORY AND RESEARCH IN Genetic and Environmental CHILD DEVELOPMENT Foundations 50 c h a p te r 1 Genetic Foundations 51 History, Theory, and The Genetic Code 51 The Sex Cells 53 Research Strategies 2 Sex Determination 53 Multiple Offspring 53 The Field of Child Development 4 Patterns of Gene–Gene Interaction 54 Chromosomal Abnormalities 58 Domains of Development 5 Periods of Development 6 Reproductive Choices 59 Basic Issues 7 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 7 Technologies 60 One Course of Development or Many? 8 Genetic Counseling 60 Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 9 Prenatal Diagnosis 62 A Balanced Point of View 9 Adoption 64 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Resilient Children 10 Environmental Contexts for Development 65 Historical Foundations 11 The Family 65 Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning 67 Medieval Times 11 The Reformation 12 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Worldwide Education of Girls: Philosophies of the Enlightenment 12 Transforming Current and Future Generations 68 Scientific Beginnings 13 Affluence 68 Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 14 Poverty 70 Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and Schools 72 The Psychoanalytic Perspective 15 The Cultural Context 74 Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 16 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 18 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Familism Promotes Competence in Hispanic Children and Youths 75 Recent Theoretical Perspectives 21 Information Processing 21 Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity Developmental Neuroscience 22 and ­Environment 78 Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 23 The Question, “How Much?” 78 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 24 The Question, “How?” 79 Ecological Systems Theory 25 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Tutsi Genocide and Development as a Dynamic System 27 Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Stress to Children 83 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Family Chaos Undermines Children’s Summary 84 Well-Being 28 Important Terms and Concepts 85 Comparing Child Development Theories 30 Studying the Child 30 Common Research Methods 31 chapte r 3 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a Prenatal Development 86 New Land 36 General Research Designs 37 Motivations for Parenthood 87 Designs for Studying Development 39 Why Have Children? 87 Improving Developmental Designs 42 How Large a Family? 89 Ethics in Research on Children 44 Is There a Best Time During Adulthood to Have a Child? 89 Summary 47 Important Terms and Concepts 49 v vi    CONTENTS Prenatal Development 90 The Transition to Parenthood 144 Conception 90 Early Parent–Infant Contact 145 Germinal Period 91 Changes in the Family System 145 Period of the Embryo 93 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Parental Depression and Period of the Fetus 94 Child Development 146 Prenatal Environmental Influences 97 Single-Mother Families 148 Teratogens 97 Parent Interventions 148 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Self-Regulation Therapy for Summary 149 Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) 103 Important Terms and Concepts 151 Other Maternal Factors 107 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Development P A R T I I I Through Social Support 110 The Importance of Prenatal Health Care 111 INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD: CULTURAL INFLUENCES Culturally Sensitive Prenatal THE FIRST TWO YEARS Health Care: Perspectives of Expectant Mothers 112 Summary 114 chapte r 5 Important Terms and Concepts 115 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 152 c h a p te r 4 Birth and the Newborn Baby 116 Body Growth 153 Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup 153 Changes in Body Proportions 155 The Stages of Childbirth 117 Individual and Group Differences 155 Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement of the Cervix 119 Brain Development 155 Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby 119 Development of Neurons 155 Stage 3: Birth of the Placenta 119 Measures of Brain Functioning 157 The Baby’s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 119 Development of the Cerebral Cortex 158 The Newborn Baby’s Appearance 120 Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 160 Assessing the Newborn’s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale 120 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on Children with Brain Injury 161 Approaches to Childbirth 121 Changing States of Arousal 164 Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 122 Home Delivery 123 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 165 Medical Interventions 123 Influences on Early Physical Growth 166 Fetal Monitoring 123 Heredity 167 Labor and Delivery Medication 124 Nutrition 168 Instrument Delivery 124 Cesarean Delivery 125 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Lead Exposure and Children’s Development 167 Birth Complications 126 Malnutrition 170 Oxygen Deprivation 126 Emotional Well-Being 171 Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 127 Birth Complications, Parenting, and Resilience 131 Learning Capacities 172 CULTURAL INFLUENCES A Cross-National Perspective on Classical Conditioning 172 Health Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 132 Operant Conditioning 173 Habituation 174 The Newborn Baby’s Capacities 133 Statistical Learning 175 Reflexes 133 Imitation 176 States 136 Motor Development 177 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant The Sequence of Motor Development 178 Death Syndrome 138 Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 179 Sensory Capacities 140 Fine-Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 182 Neonatal Behavioral Assessment 143  CONTENTS    vii Perceptual Development Hearing 184 184 chapte r 7 Emotional and BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT “Tuning in” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture- Social Development in Specific Learning 185 Infancy and Toddlerhood 240 Vision 186 Object Perception 190 Intermodal Perception 191 Emotional Development 241 Understanding Perceptual Development 192 Basic Emotions 242 Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 245 Summary 194 Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions 246 Important Terms and Concepts 195 Beginnings of Emotional Self-Regulation 247 Temperament and Development 249 c h a p te r 6 The Structure of Temperament 249 Measuring Temperament 250 Cognitive Development in Stability of Temperament 251 Infancy and Toddlerhood 196 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Development of Shyness and Sociability 252 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 197 Genetic and Environmental Influences 253 Piaget’s Ideas About Cognitive Change 198 Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model 255 The Sensorimotor Stage 198 Development of Attachment 256 Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 201 Bowlby’s Ethological Theory 257 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Baby Learning from Screen Media: Measuring the Security of Attachment 258 The Video Deficit Effect 206 Stability of Attachment 260 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 207 Cultural Variations 260 Factors That Affect Attachment Security 261 Information Processing 210 Multiple Attachments 265 Assumptions of the Information-Processing Perspective 210 Attention 212 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 266 Memory 213 Categorization 215 CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Role of Fathers’ Involvement in BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Infantile Amnesia 216 Children’s Development 268 Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings 217 From Attachment to Peer Sociability 269 Attachment and Later Development 270 The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development 218 Self-Development 271 Individual Differences in Early Mental Development 219 Self-Awareness 271 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 220 Categorizing the Self 274 Infant and Toddler Intelligence Tests 221 Self-Control 274 Early Environment and Mental Development 222 Summary 276 Early Intervention for At-Risk Infants and Toddlers 224 Important Terms and Concepts 277 Language Development 227 M I L E S TO N E S Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood 278 Theories of Language Development 227 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Thiamine Deficiency in the First Year and Later Language Impairment 229 P A R T I V Getting Ready to Talk 231 First Words 233 EARLY CHILDHOOD: The Two-Word Utterance Phase 234 TWO TO SIX YEARS Individual and Cultural Differences 234 8 Supporting Early Language Development 236 chapte r Summary 238 Physical Development Important Terms and Concepts 239 in Early Childhood 280 A Changing Body and Brain 281 Skeletal Growth 283 Brain Development 283 viii    CONTENTS Influences on Physical Growth and Health 285 Language Development 344 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Childhood Poverty and Brain Vocabulary 345 Development 286 Grammar 347 Heredity and Hormones 286 Conversation 349 Sleep Habits and Problems 287 Supporting Language Learning in Early Childhood 350 Nutrition 289 Summary 351 Infectious Disease 291 Important Terms and Concepts 353 Childhood Injuries 292 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Otitis Media and Development 293 Motor Development 296 chapte r 10 Gross-Motor Development 296 Emotional and Fine-Motor Development 297 Social Development CULTURAL INFLUENCES Why Are Children from Asian Cultures in Early Childhood 354 Advanced in Drawing Skills? 300 Individual Differences in Motor Skills 302 Self-Understanding 355 Enhancing Early Childhood Motor Development 302 Foundations of Self-Concept 356 Summary 304 Emergence of Self-Esteem 357 Important Terms and Concepts 305 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling: Implications for Early Self-Concept 357 c h a p te r 9 Emotional Development 358 Understanding Emotion 358 Cognitive Development Emotional Self-Regulation 359 in Early Childhood 306 Self-Conscious Emotions 360 Empathy and Sympathy 362 Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage 307 Peer Relations 363 Advances in Mental Representation 307 Advances in Peer Sociability 363 Make-Believe Play 308 First Friendships 365 Symbol–Real-World Relations 309 Peer Relations and School Readiness 366 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 311 Social Problem Solving 367 Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 312 Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations 368 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Children’s Gestures Facilitate Foundations of Morality and Aggression 369 Cognitive Change 315 The Psychoanalytic Perspective 370 Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 316 Social Learning Theory 371 Piaget and Education 317 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Ethnic Differences in the Consequences Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 318 of Physical Punishment 374 Private Speech 318 The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective 376 Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition 319 Development of Aggression 377 Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education 321 Gender Typing 382 Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 321 Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behaviors 382 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Biological Influences on Gender Typing 383 Observe and Participate in Adult Work 322 Environmental Influences on Gender Typing 384 Information Processing 323 Gender Identity 387 Executive Function 323 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Transgender Children 390 Memory 326 Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children 391 Problem Solving 328 The Young Child’s Theory of Mind 329 Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development 392 Early Literacy and Mathematical Development 331 Styles of Child Rearing 392 What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective? 394 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Autism and Theory of Mind 332 Cultural Variations 394 Individual Differences in Mental Development 336 Child Maltreatment 395 Early Childhood Intelligence Tests 336 Summary 399 Home Environment and Mental Development 337 Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care 337 Important Terms and Concepts 401 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Teaching Through Guided Play 339 M I L E S TO N E S Development in Early Childhood 402 Educational Screen Media 342  CONTENTS    ix P A R T V The School-Age Child’s Theory of Mind 442 Cognitive Self-Regulation 443 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: Applications of Information Processing to Academic SIX TO ELEVEN YEARS Learning 444 Individual Differences in Mental Development 448 c h a p te r 11 Defining and Measuring Intelligence 448 Other Efforts to Define Intelligence 449 Physical Development Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 452 in Middle Childhood 404 CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 454 Body Growth 405 Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing 456 Worldwide Variations in Body Size 406 Language Development 457 Secular Trends in Physical Growth 407 Vocabulary and Grammar 457 Skeletal Growth 407 Pragmatics 458 Brain Development 408 Learning Two Languages 459 Health Issues 409 Children’s Learning in School 462 Nutrition 409 Educational Philosophies 462 Overweight and Obesity 410 Teacher–Student Interaction 465 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Family Stressors and Childhood Obesity 413 Grouping Practices 465 Vision and Hearing 414 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Magnet Schools: Equal Access to Bedwetting 415 High-Quality Education 466 Illnesses 416 Educational Screen Media 467 Unintentional Injuries 417 Teaching Children with Special Needs 468 Health Education 418 How Well-Educated Are U.S. Children? 471 Motor Development and Play 420 Summary 473 Gross-Motor Development 420 Important Terms and Concepts 475 Fine-Motor Development 421 Individual Differences in Motor Skills 422 Games with Rules 423 chapte r 13 Adult-Organized Youth Sports 424 Emotional and Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past 425 Social Development Physical Education 426 SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION School Recess—A Time to Play, in Middle Childhood 476 a Time to Learn 427 Summary 428 Self-Understanding 477 Self-Concept 477 Important Terms and Concepts 429 Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Influences on Self-Concept 478 c h a p te r 12 Self-Esteem 479 Influences on Self-Esteem 479 Cognitive Development Emotional Development 485 in Middle Childhood 430 Self-Conscious Emotions 485 Emotional Understanding 486 Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage 430 Emotional Self-Regulation 487 Attainments of the Concrete Operational Stage 430 Moral Development 487 Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 434 Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding 488 Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 434 Understanding Individual Rights 489 Evaluation of the Concrete Operational Stage 435 Culture and Moral Understanding 489 Information Processing 436 Understanding Diversity and Inequality 489 Executive Function 436 Peer Relations 492 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Children with Attention-Deficit Peer Groups 492 Hyperactivity Disorder 437 Friendships 493 Memory Strategies 440 Peer Acceptance 494 Knowledge and Memory 441 BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Bullies and Their Victims 497 Culture, Schooling, and Memory Strategies 441 x    CONTENTS Gender Typing 498 CULTURAL INFLUENCES Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs 498 on Children 514 Gender Identity and Behavior 500 Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood 515 Family Influences 501 SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Children’s Eyewitness Testimony 516 Parent–Child Relationships 502 Summary 519 Siblings 502 Important Terms and Concepts 521 Only Children 503 Lesbian and Gay Families 503 M I L E S TO N E S Development in Middle Childhood 522 Never-Married Parent Families 504 Divorce 505 Blended Families 509 Maternal Employment and Dual-Earner Families 510 Glossary G-1 Some Common Problems of Development 512 References R-1 Fears and Anxieties 512 Child Sexual Abuse 513 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1 A Personal Note to Students My more than 30 years of teaching child development have brought me in contact with thousands of students like you—students with diverse college majors, future goals, interests, and needs. Some are affiliated with my own field of psychology, but many come from other related fields—education, sociology, anthropology, biology, family studies, social service, and health sciences, to name just a few. Each semester, my students’ aspirations have proved to be as varied as their fields of study. Many look toward careers in applied work—teaching, caregiving, nursing, counseling, social work, school psychology, and program administration. Most hope someday to become parents, whereas others are already parents who come with a desire to better understand and rear their children. And almost all arrive with a deep curiosity about how they themselves developed from tiny infants into the complex human beings they are today. My goal in preparing this ninth edition of Infants and Children is to provide a textbook that meets the instructional goals of your course as well as your personal interests and needs. To achieve these objectives, I have grounded this book in a carefully selected body of classic and current theory and research brought to life with stories and vignettes about children and families, most of whom I have known personally. In addition, the text highlights the joint contributions of biology and environment to the developing child, explains how the research process helps solve real-world problems, illustrates commonalities and differences among ethnic groups and cultures, and pays special attention to policy issues that are crucial for safeguarding children’s well-being in today’s world. Woven throughout the text is a unique pedagogical program that will assist you in mastering information, integrating the various aspects of development, critically examining controversial issues, applying what you have learned, and relating the information to real life. I hope that learning about child development will be as rewarding for you as I have found it over the years. I would like to know what you think about both the field of child development and this book. I welcome your comments; please contact me at [email protected]. Laura E. Berk xi Preface for Instructors In preparing this ninth edition of Infants, Children, and Adoles- The educational context of development becomes a stronger cents, I drew inspiration from the hundreds of students of child focus. The home, school, and community are featured as vital development with whom I have worked in more than three decades educational contexts in which the child develops. Research on of college teaching. As in previous editions, I aimed for a text effective teaching practices appears in all chapters and in new and that is intellectually stimulating, provides depth as well as breadth revised Social Issues: Education boxes. of coverage, portrays the complexities of child development with The role of active student learning is made more explicit. Ask clarity and excitement, and is relevant and useful in building a Yourself questions at the end of each major section have been bridge from theory and research to children’s everyday lives. revised to promote three approaches to engaging actively with the The nearly three decades since Infants, Children, and Adoles- subject matter: Connect, Apply, and Reflect. This feature assists cents first appeared have been a period of unprecedented expansion students in thinking about what they have read from multiple van- and change in theory and research. This ninth edition represents tage points. The Look and Listen feature presents students with these rapidly transforming aspects of the field, with a wealth of opportunities to observe what real children say and do and attend new content and enhanced teaching tools: to influences on children in their everyday environments. Diverse pathways of change are highlighted. Investigators have reached broad consensus that variations in biological makeup, eve- ryday tasks, and the people who support children in mastery of those tasks lead to wide individual differences in children’s paths Text Philosophy of change and resulting competencies. This edition pays more attention to variability in development and to major theoretical The basic approach of this book has been shaped by my own pro- perspectives—including neurobiological, ecological, sociocul- fessional and personal history as a teacher, researcher, and par- tural, dynamic systems, and epigenesis—that attempt to explain it. ent. It consists of seven philosophical ingredients that I regard as Multicultural and cross-cultural findings, along with international essential for students to emerge from a course with a thorough comparisons, are enhanced throughout the text and in revised and understanding of child development: expanded Cultural Influences boxes. 1. An understanding of major theories and the strengths and The complex, bidirectional relationship between biology and shortcomings of each. The first chapter begins by emphasizing environment is given greater attention. Accumulating evidence that only knowledge of multiple theories can do justice to the on development of the brain, motor skills, cognitive and language richness of child development. As I take up each age period and competencies, temperament and personality, emotional and social domain of development, I present a variety of theoretical perspec- understanding, and developmental problems underscores the way tives, indicate how each highlights previously overlooked aspects biological factors emerge in, are modified by, and share power with of development, and discuss research that evaluates it. Considera- experience. The interconnection between biology and environment tion of contrasting theories also serves as the context for an even- is revisited throughout the text narrative and in Biology and Envi- handed analysis of many controversial issues. ronment boxes with new and updated topics. 2. An appreciation of research strategies for investigating child Inclusion of interdisciplinary research is expanded. The move development. To evaluate theories, students must have a firm toward viewing thoughts, feelings, and behavior as an integrated grounding in research methods and designs. In addition to a spe- whole, affected by a wide array of influences in biology, social cial section in Chapter 1 covering research strategies and a sec- context, and culture, has motivated developmental researchers to tion in Chapter 5 devoted to neurobiological methods, numerous strengthen their ties with other areas of psychology and with other studies are discussed in sufficient detail throughout the text for disciplines. Topics and findings included in this edition increas- students to use what they have learned to critically assess the find- ingly reflect the contributions of educational psychology, social ings, conclusions, and implications of research. psychology, health psychology, clinical psychology, neurobiology, 3. Knowledge of both the sequence of child development and the pediatrics, sociology, anthropology, social service, and other fields. processes that underlie it. Students are provided with a discussion The links among theory, research, and applications—a theme of the organized sequence of development along with processes of this book since its inception—are strengthened. As researchers of change. An understanding of process—how complex combina- intensify their efforts to generate findings that can be applied to tions of biological, psychological, and environmental events pro- real-life situations, I have placed greater weight on social policy duce development—has been the focus of most recent research. issues and sound theory- and evidence-based interventions and Accordingly, the text reflects this emphasis. But new information practices. Further applications are provided in the Applying What about the timetable of change has also emerged. Current evidence We Know tables, which give students concrete ways of building on the sequence and timing of development, along with its impli- bridges between their learning and the real world. cations for process, is presented throughout the text. xii  PREFACE    xiii 4. An appreciation of the impact of context and culture on child must link the various parts together. To assist with this task, I fre- development. A wealth of research indicates that children live in quently remind students of important earlier achievements before rich physical and social contexts that affect all domains of devel- discussing new developments, referring back to related sections opment. Throughout the text, students travel to distant parts of the with page references. Also, chapters devoted to the same topic (for world as I review a growing body of cross-cultural evidence. The example, cognitive development) are similarly organized, making text narrative also discusses many findings on socioeconomically it easier for students to draw connections across age periods and and ethnically diverse children within the United States and on construct an overall view of developmental change. children with varying abilities and challenges. Besides highlight- ing the role of immediate settings, such as family, neighborhood, and school, I make a concerted effort to underscore the influence of larger social structures—societal values, laws, and government programs—on children’s well-being. New Coverage in the 5. An understanding of the joint contributions of biology and environment to development. The field recognizes more than Ninth Edition ever before the joint roles of hereditary/constitutional and envi- Child development is a fascinating and ever-changing field, with ronmental factors—that these contributions to development com- constantly emerging new discoveries and refinements in existing bine in complex ways and cannot be separated in a simple man- knowledge. The ninth edition represents this burgeoning contem- ner. Numerous examples of how biological dispositions can be porary literature with more than 1,500 new citations. Cutting-edge maintained as well as transformed by social contexts are presented topics throughout the text underscore the text’s major themes. Here throughout the text. is a sampling of updated and new content: 6. A sense of the interdependency of all domains of develop- CHAPTER 1 Introduction to the developmental systems perspec- ment— physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. Every chapter tive The current, intense interest among information-processing takes an integrated approach to understanding children, illustrat- researchers in “executive” processes, enabling children to man- ing how physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development age their thoughts, emotions, and actions Biology and Environ- are interwoven. Within the text narrative and in the Ask Yourself ment box on resilience Social Issues: Health box on how family questions at the end of major sections, students are referred to chaos undermines children’s well-being Cultural Influences ­other sections of the text to deepen their grasp of relationships box on immigrant youths Enhanced discussion and examples among various aspects of change. of research strategies, including the implications of confounding 7. An appreciation of the interrelatedness of theory, research, variables for the accuracy of findings in experimental research and applications. Throughout, I emphasize that theories of child CHAPTER 2 Genetic sex as a spectrum rather than a dichot- development and the research stimulated by them provide the omy Social and cultural influences on the male-to-female birth foundation for sound, effective practices with children. The links sex ratio, with special attention to prenatal sex-selective abortion among theory, research, and applications are reinforced by an or- in China Older paternal age and increased risk of DNA muta- ganizational format in which theory and research are presented tions contributing to psychological disorders, including autism and first, followed by practical implications. In addition, a current schizophrenia Fetal medicine and gene therapy, including the focus in the field—harnessing child development knowledge to recent breakthrough in treating beta thalassemia Adoption and shape social policies that support children’s needs—is reflected in developmental outcomes, including the importance of openness every chapter. The text addresses the current condition of children in communication with children Impact of poverty on devel- in the United States and around the world and shows how theory opment Social Issues: Education box on the impact of world- and research have combined with public interest to spark success- wide education of girls, reporting findings from a four-country ful interventions. study in Mexico, Nepal, Venezuela, and Zambia Cultural Influ- ences box on familism and development of Hispanic children and youths Public policies and development, including current sta- tistics on the condition of children and families in the United States Text Organization compared with other Western nations Epigenesis, including the role of methylation as an epigenetic mechanism Biology and Environment box on epigenetic transmission of maternal stress to The chronological organization of this text assists students in thor- children oughly understanding each age period. It also eases the task of integrating the various domains of development because each is CHAPTER 3 Prenatal brain growth and sensory and behav- discussed in close proximity. At the same time, a chronologically ioral capacities Teratogens, including tobacco, marijuana, organized text requires that theories covering several age periods alcohol, the Zika virus, and environmental pollution Epige- be presented piecemeal. This creates a challenge for students, who netic changes induced by prenatal teratogens that contribute to xiv    PREFACE long-term developmental consequences Biology and Environ- CHAPTER 7 Development of basic emotions in infancy, includ- ment box on self-regulation therapy for children with fetal alcohol ing smiling, laughter, anger, fear, and sadness, along with cultural spectrum disorder (FASD) Consequences of severe emotional variations Cultural variations in early development of emotional stress during pregnancy Social Issues: Health box on the Nurse–­ self-regulation Ethnic differences in development of tempera- Family Partnership—reducing maternal stress and enhancing child ment Temperament and individual differences in susceptibility development through social support Cultural Influences box on to the effects of good and poor parenting Cultural variations culturally sensitive prenatal health care and implications for birth in infants’ expressions of attachment security Early rearing of outcomes infants in institutions followed by placement in adoptive homes, with consequences for brain development and emotional and social CHAPTER 4 Generational transmission of low birth weight adjustment Cultural differences in views of sensitive caregiv- Interventions for preterm and low-birth-weight infants, includ- ing, including proximal care in non-Western cultures Joint ing exposure to recordings of the mother’s voice and heartbeat contributions of infant genotype, temperament, and parenting to and to kangaroo care Birth-related hormonal changes in moth- disorganized/disoriented attachment Contributions of fathers’ ers and fathers and implications for infant caregiving Adap- involvement in caregiving to attachment security and later devel- tiveness of newborn reflexes Cultural variations in soothing opment Grandparents as primary caregivers and attachment infant crying Long-term persistence of newborn odor and taste figures in skipped-generation families Roles of temperament preferences Transition to parenthood, including interventions and parenting in early sibling relationships Early peer sociabil- that foster parental adjustment Parental depression and child ity, including toddlers’ sensitivity to playmates’ needs as reflected development in helping and sharing Development of self-recognition in the CHAPTER 5 Early brain development, including adaptive func- second year, including body self-recognition Implications of tions of programmed cell death and synaptic pruning Later- toddlers’ expanding self-awareness for positive social behaviors alization of the cerebral cortex, including early development of CHAPTER 8 Advances in brain development in early childhood, handedness Infants placed in depleted orphanages, with empha- with enhanced attention to the prefrontal cortex and executive sis on results from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project and function Health status of U.S. young children, including tooth implications for infancy as a sensitive period for healthy brain decay and childhood immunizations Biology and Environment growth Infant sleep, including contributions of parental feeding box on childhood poverty and brain development Young chil- practices and bedtime routines Implications of restful sleep for dren’s screen media use and sleep disturbances Influence of learning and memory in the first two years Cultural Influences parenting practices on young children’s healthy eating Parental box addressing parent–infant cosleeping and bedsharing Social influences on unintentional injuries in early childhood Impor- Issues: Health box on low-level lead exposure and children’s devel- tance of supporting preschoolers’ and kindergartners’ efforts to opment Long-term consequences of malnutrition in infancy draw and print and toddlerhood, with special attention to the role of malnutrition-­ induced epigenetic changes Infant statistical learning as a CHAPTER 9 Evidence bearing on the controversy over the con- built-in broadly applied learning capacity The controversy over tribution of make-believe play to development Factors con- newborns’ capacity to imitate adult facial expressions, head move- tributing to children’s grasp of conservation Social Issues: ments, and hand gestures Influence of caregiving practices and Education box on how children’s gestures during problem solv- physical surroundings on motor development Infant speech ing facilitate cognitive change Development of executive func- perception, including bilingual infants Newborns perception of tion in early childhood, including the roles of parental scaffolding object unity and SES Development of memory in early childhood, with attention to the distinction between episodic and semantic mem- CHAPTER 6 Tool use and problem solving in infants and tod- ory Cognitive attainments and social experiences that contribute dlers Toddlers’ grasp of pictures and video as symbols, to mastery of false belief in early childhood Development of including experiences that enhance their symbolic understand- mathematical reasoning in early childhood, with attention to the ing Introduction to the concept of executive function Gains importance of understanding cardinality Academic benefits of in control of attention and emergence of working memory in the Montessori preschool education Social Issues: Education box first year Influence of adult verbal labeling on toddlers’ catego- on teaching through guided play Strengthening preschool inter- rization and flexibility of problem solving Evaluation of Early vention for economically disadvantaged children through Head Head Start Biology and Environment box on thiamine (vitamin Start REDI Educational screen media Preschoolers’ strate- B1) deficiency in the first year and later language impairment, gies for word learning, including cultural variations Importance with implications for a sensitive period for language develop- of conversational give-and-take with adults for language progress ment Infants’ use of parental feedback to master native-language in early childhood sounds Infants’ grasp of the shared nature of word meanings and the communicative function of language Importance of one- CHAPTER 10 Gains in emotional understanding and emotional on-one communication with a responsive adult for early language self-regulation in early childhood Preschoolers’ recognition of development, in both real-life and video contexts self-conscious emotions in themselves and others Contributions  PREFACE    xv of sociodramatic and rough-and-tumble play to emotional and attention-­deficit hyperactivity disorder Strategies for promot- social development Cultural variations in attitudes toward ing cognitive self-regulation, including opportunities for children children’s solitary play Implications of early childhood friend- to teach academic content to others Cultural Influences box on ships for children’s psychological adjustment and social com- the Flynn Effect, addressing dramatic gains in IQ from one gen- petence The controversy over whether an innate moral sense eration to the next Contributions of spelling to reading prog­ exists, serving as the springboard for moral development Nega- ress Importance of school-age children’s expanding grasp of tive impact of material rewards on children’s prosocial behav- numerical magnitudes for mathematical understanding Cul- ior Prevalence of corporal punishment in the United States tural variation in views of intelligent behavior, with implications and developmental consequences Contributions of language, for minority children’s intellectual strengths Role of poverty in theory of mind, parenting, and peer and sibling experiences to accounting for ethnic variations in IQ Diverse cognitive ben- development of moral understanding in early childhood Devel- efits of bilingualism Bilingual education, including the rapid opment of young children’s aggression, including the role of growth of two-way language immersion programs in U.S. public parental gender-role attitudes, exposure to media violence, and schools Benefits of cooperative learning and the community of gender differences Effects of prenatal androgen exposure on learners approach, in which collaboration becomes a schoolwide gender typing Gender typing in young children’s everyday value Social Issues: Education box on effectiveness of magnet environments, with implications for gender-stereotyped beliefs schools in enhancing academic achievement, especially among and behaviors Biology and Environment box on transgender ethnic minority students Academic learning through interactive children Consequences of child abuse and neglect, including screen media, including video game play Features of school increased risk of other forms of victimization Early inter- programs that support learning and development of gifted chil- vention to prevent child maltreatment, with special attention to dren U.S. academic achievement in international perspective Healthy Families America home visiting program CHAPTER 13 Ethnic variations in development of self- CHAPTER 11 Global rise in overweight and obesity, with cross- esteem Negative impact of inflated praise on children’s self- national comparisons of child and adolescent rates Genetic esteem Differential impact of growth and fixed mindsets about and environmental contributions to childhood obesity, includ- ability on children’s academic motivation and p­ erformance Influ- ing metabolism, child temperament, insufficient sleep, parenting ence of parent and teacher communication on children’s mindsets practices, family stress, screen media use, and the broader food about ability Contributions of recursive thought and high- environment Cross-national variations in childhood myopia quality friendships to advances in moral understanding Racial/ rates, related to time spend reading, writing, and doing other ethnic and socioeconomic prejudices in school-age children, and close work Child temperament and risk of nocturnal enure- effective ways to reduce prejudice Strategies for helping peer- sis School-age children’s unrealistic optimism about their risk rejected children Biology and Environment box on bullies and of unintentional injuries Contributions of children’s physical fit- their victims School-age children’s gender-stereotyped beliefs ness to cognitive development and academic achievement Influ- about achievement Role of sex-segregated peer associations in ence of parents and coaches on children’s participation in organized school-age children’s gender typing Never-married parent fam- sports and gains in athletic skills Contributions of fathers’ ilies, with special attention to African-American men’s involve- rough-and-tumble play to children’s emotional and social adjust- ment with their children Parent training for custodial parents in ment and self-regulation divorced families Effects of maternal and dual-earner employ- ment on child development Cultural Influences box on the CHAPTER 12 Gains in executive function in middle child- impact of ethnic and political violence on children, with special hood, including related changes in the brain, implications for attention to children separated from their parents and other adult academic learning, and interventions that enhance executive relatives at the U.S. southern border function Biology and Environment box on children with xvi    PREFACE Pedagogical Features Maintaining a highly accessible writing style—one that is lucid and engaging without being simplistic—continues to be one of my major goals. I frequently converse with students, encouraging them to relate what they read to their own lives. In doing so, I aim to make the study of child development involving and pleasurable. c h a p t e r T 1 he youngest of six children, Reiko Nagumo was born in Los Angeles in 1934 What’s to Japanese-immigrant parents who had become naturalized U.S. citizens. On Ahead in History,Theory, and December 7, 1941, when Reiko was in second grade, the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, an event that caused the United States to declare war on Japan and Chapter 1 Research Strategies enter World War II. In the days that followed, Reiko’s best friend, Mary Frances, approached her at school and said, “Reiko, my mama told me to tell you that I’m 1.1 The Field of Child Development Domains of Development Periods of not allowed to play with you anymore because you’re Japanese, and we’re at war Development with Japan.” 1.2 Basic Issues The only Japanese student in her class, Reiko became the target of her class- Continuous or Discontinuous Development? mates’ harassment, including name-calling, hitting, and spitting. Still, Mary Frances One Course of Development or Many? remained Reiko’s friend at school, becoming her protective, side-by-side partner as Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? A Balanced Point of View the children transitioned between their homeroom and the school library—a kind- BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT: Resilient ness encouraged by the girls’ classroom teacher. After returning from winter break in Children January of 1942, Mary Frances approached Reiko excitedly and invited her over to see 1.3 Historical Foundations the gifts she had received at Christmastime. Medieval Times The Reformation “But you’re not allowed to play with me,” Reiko reminded Mary Frances. Philosophies of the Enlightenment “Oh, my mama won’t know,” Mary Frances replied. “She works at the hospital, Scientific Beginnings and I have a key.” 1.4 Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories The Psychoanalytic Perspective Behaviorism After school, the two friends ran to Mary Frances’s home, but as they entered, and Social Learning Theory Piaget’s they heard her Uncle Bill approaching through another door. Quickly, Mary Frances Cognitive-Developmental Theory directed Reiko to hide behind the sofa, but Uncle Bill, hearing the girls talking, found 1.5 Recent Theoretical Perspectives Reiko, dragged her out, and told her to go home and never come back. Then he Information Processing Developmental threatened, “Mary Frances, I’m going to punish you.” Neuroscience Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Vygotsky’s Soon after, the U.S. government issued an executive order requiring tens of Sociocultural Theory Ecological Systems thousands of American citizens of Japanese ancestry to be relocated from their Theory Development as a Dynamic System homes to internment camps. Reiko, her parents, and her siblings were rounded up SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH: Family Chaos with other Japanese Americans, herded onto busses, and transported to a holding Undermines Children’s Well-Being center where, for three months, all eight family members slept in the same room 1.6 Comparing Child Development on canvas bags they had stuffed with hay. Then, the incarcerated citizens boarded Theories trains for Heart Mountain Relocation Center in Wyoming, where they were held for 1.7 Studying the Child three years. Common Research Methods General Research Designs Designs for Studying An active, curious child, Reiko was overcome with sadness at being separated Development Improving Developmental from her home and daily routines. Her parents, despite the trauma of their deso- Designs late surroundings and denial of their Constitutional rights, managed to provide CULTURAL INFLUENCES: Immigrant their children with affection and support, including encouragement to do well Youths: Adapting to a New Land 1.8 Ethics in Research on Children CREDIT TK Fly the Kites Tukasz B, 11 years, Poland With bright colors and bold brush strokes, this artist conveys the excitement of a sky full of kites on a blustery day. Chapter 1 will introduce you to a multiplicity of approaches to the study of child development and to the cultural, philosophical, and scientific currents that led each to take flight. Reprinted with permission from The International Museum of Children’s Art, Oslo, Norway Reiko Nagumo, age 11 (center), with friends at Heart Mountain Relocation Center. 2 3 Years lerho od: The First Two cy and Todd PART III Infan 194 R Y S U M M A dietary diseases Chapter Introductions