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PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFEREN...

PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES B.A. (HONS) PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER-II DSC-04 DSC-04 DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Psychology of Individual Differences Editors Prof. N.K. Chadha Dr. Sarabjit K. Sran Dr. Madhulika Bajpai Content Writers Dr. Nisha Chaudhary, Dr. Madhulika Bajpai Prof. Pooja Wadhawan, Dr. Poonam Vats Content Reviewer from the DDCE/COL/SOL Dr. Nupur Gosain Ms. Vidyut Singh Academic Coordinator Mr. Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN: 978-81-19417-79-7 Ist edition: 2024 E-mail: [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing Committee held on 08/05/2023 and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 26/05/2023 Vide item no. 1014 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on 09/06/2023 vide item no. 14 {14-1(14-1-11)} Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions can be sent to the email- [email protected] Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (600 Copies) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Psychology of Individual Differences SYLLABUS Psychology of Individual Differences Syllabus Mapping UNIT I Personality: Nature of Personality; Approaches: Psychodynamic, Lesson 1: Personality Phenomenological-Humanistic, Trait, Social-Cognitive; Biological (Pages 3-26) Foundations of Personality; Culture, Gender and Personality UNIT II Intelligence: Psychometric and Cognitive Process Approaches; Broader Lesson 2: Intelligence Conceptions of Intelligence; Heredity, Environment and Intelligence; Extremes (Pages 29-59) of Intelligence UNIT III Psychological Testing: Defining Features of a Psychological Test; Historical Lesson 3: Testing Foundations of Psychological Testing; Reliability, Validity, Norms; Types of (Pages 63-88) Psychological Tests (Special Emphasis on Personality and Intelligence Testing); Applications and Issues © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Psychology of Individual Differences CONTENTS UNIT I LESSON 1 PERSONALITY 3-26 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Concept of Personality 1.4 Biological Foundation of Personality 1.5 Major Approaches to Personality 1.5.1 Trait Approach 1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach 1.5.3 Social- cognitive Approach 1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach 1.6 Culture, Gender and Personality 1.6.1 Gender schemas 1.7 Solved Illustrations 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.11 Self-Assessment Questions 1.12 References 1.13 Suggested Readings © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences UNIT II LESSON 2 INTELLIGENCE 29-59 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Approaches to Understanding Intelligence 2.3.1 Psychometric Approach 2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory 2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence 2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches 2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 2.4 Broader Conceptions of Intelligence 2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence 2.4.2 Emotional Intelligence 2.4.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence 2.5 Heredity, Environment and Intelligence 2.6 Extremes of Intelligence 2.6.1 Intellectually Gifted 2.6.2 Intellectual Disability 2.7 Summary 2.8 Glossary 2.9 Answers to In-Text Questions 2.10 Self-Assessment Questions 2.11 References 2.12 Suggested Readings © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Psychology of Individual Differences UNIT III LESSON 3 TESTING 63-88 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Nature and Definitions of Psychological Testing 3.4 Further Distinctions in Testing 3.5 Origin of Psychological Testing 3.6 Purpose/Objective 3.7 Assumptions of Psychological Testing 3.8 Types of Tests 3.9 Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test 3.10 Validity 3.11 Reliability 3.12 Standardisation and Norms 3.13 Applications and Issues 3.14 Summary 3.15 Glossary 3.16 Answers to In-Text Questions 3.17 Self-Assessment Questions 3.18 References © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi UNIT I: PERSONALITY LESSON 1 PERSONALITY Personality LESSON 1 NOTES PERSONALITY Dr. Nisha Chaudhary Assistant Professor Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College Email-Id: [email protected] Structure 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Concept of Personality 1.4 Biological Foundation of Personality 1.5 Major Approaches to Personality 1.5.1 Trait Approach 1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach 1.5.3 Social- cognitive Approach 1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach 1.6 Culture, Gender and Personality 1.6.1 Gender schemas 1.7 Solved Illustrations 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.11 Self-Assessment Questions 1.12 References 1.13 Suggested Readings 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To understand the concept of personality  To describe various constituents of personality  To identify differences in various approaches of personality Self-Instructional  To elaborate on the impact of culture and gender on personality development Material 3 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 1.2 INTRODUCTION Knowing about one’s behaviour and feelings has always been a study for not only researchers but even for common people. Everyone wants to know what he or she feels, thinks and why they act in a particular manner. This chapter will introduce you to various components and theoretical perspectives of personality. 1.3 CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY The term personality comes from the Latin word “Persona” which means a mask worn by roman theatrical actors in early days to portray their role in plays. After putting on the mask, audience expected the person to perform a role in a particular manner. In general terms, personality can be understood as the sum total of both inner and outer qualities of a person and these qualities interact with different social situations which leads to a certain kind of behaviour. There are endless definitions of personality by many authors. After evaluating more than 49 different definitions from the literature, Gordon W. Allport concluded, “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the environment.” Psychologists investigating personality always see it as a product of both heredity and environment. An individual’s personality is developed because of continuous interaction of innate factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture). 1.4 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF PERSONALITY Our personalities are the sum total of both our genetics and environment. Research related to genetic makeup, twin studies, and adoption studies, have unleashed a great Self-Instructional 4 Material deal of understanding in this sphere. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality Many researchers are in line with nearly 50% impact of genes on personality of NOTES a person. Hence, it becomes important to understand that nervous system could open the door of understanding of biological aspects of personality. Hormones and neurotransmitters play an important role over here. Even certain brain regions have been studied to know the physiological nature of personality (some of the important regions are Amygdala, Hypothalamus). In-Text Questions 1. According to Personality Definitions, which term seems not related? a) Organized b) Unstable c) Unique d) Psycho-Physical System 2. ____________ is a brain area affecting the physiological nature of personality. a) Amygdala b) Hormones c) Genes d) None of the above 1.5 MAJOR APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Different theories and approaches have been developed for understanding of personality development, differences, consistencies and changes. These theories and approaches are based on different models or schools of psychology explaining human behaviour. Each approach has certain core concepts, and they define personality through use of these concepts.  Trait Approach  Psychodynamic Approach  Social- cognitive Approach  Phenomenological- humanistic Approach 1.5.1 Trait Approach These are concerned with identifying and quantifying different personality traits, or Self-Instructional characteristics of personality. Traits are specific psychological attributes along which Material 5 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES individuals tend to differ. The theories under this approach is sometimes referred to as Psychometric Theories because they emphasise on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. The following theories are included under this approach:  Gordan Allport’s Trait Theory  Raymond Cattell’s Personality Factors Theory  Eysenck’s Trait- Dimensional Theory  Big Five Factor Model of Personality Gordan Allport’s Trait Theory He was one of the first theorists to launch personality as a field. According to him, traits are determining tendencies or predispositions to respond. He proposed that humans posses a number of traits which determine behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different situations with different plans. He proposed a hierarchy of levels of the three types of traits:  Cardinal Traits: They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively known as individual’s master control. The word “Cardinal” means important, primary and fundamental. Allport believed that some people have dispositions that influence most aspects of their behaviour. These are so dominant that nearly all the individual’s actions can be traced back to them. He called these highly generalized dispositions, cardinal traits. E.g., Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Violence.  Central Traits: These are next in the hierarchy. According to Allport, these are less pervasive in nature but still generalized dispositions. These are general characteristics found in varying degrees in every person. Like a person may be foodie or kind. They are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behaviour.  Secondary Traits: These exist at the bottom of the hierarchy. They are more specific in nature and consistent as compared to central traits. They are plenty but are visible in specific situations; they include a person’s attitudes and preferences. E.g., being foodie is a central trait whereas liking chinese food specifically is secondary trait. Self-Instructional 6 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality Allport hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s NOTES behaviour and personality and he referred to them as genotypes and phenotypes. Fig. 1.1 Allport’s Trait Theory Raymond Cattell Personality Factors Theory Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from each other. He came up with the list of nearly 4500 words that are used for personality description. He removed certain and added some, which lead to 171 trait names. He applied a statistical technique called Factor Analysis to identify the basic or primary traits. According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality traits. He concluded that personality is composed of 16 primary or source traits.  Source traits are stable and are considered as the building blocks of personality. (Warmth, Reasoning, Perfectionism, Tension etc.)  Surface Traits, other than source traits there are certain surface traits that result out of interaction of source traits. Each person has these 16 traits to a certain degree. Cattell also developed an assessment based on these 16 personality factors. The test is known as 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire where each dimension is scored on a continuum from high to low. Self-Instructional Material 7 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES Eysenck’s Trait- Dimensional Theory/ Eysenck’s Hierarchical Theory Eysenck’s theory is sometime called “Temperament” theory as he focused on biological dimensions of personality and how these dimensions are related to the environmental or social aspects. Eysenck’s original research found two dimensions of temperament: Neuroticism and Extraversion- Introversion. Eysenck later added and discussed about three major dimensions- Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism, all these formulate three major personality traits.  Introversion versus Extraversion Introversion- Extraversion is the extent to which people are socially withdrawn or socially outgoing. On one hand of the dimension there are people who are shy, silent, passive, and reserved and on the other hand are those who are active, sociable, outgoing, impulsive, and jolly.  Emotional Stability versus Neuroticism Stability here relates to the general moodiness of a person. Therefore, at one extreme, an emotionally stable person would be reliable, even-tempered, calm and controlled and on the other extreme, a neurotic person would be restless, anxious, touchy, moody and aggressive.  Psychoticism versus Sociability/ Impulse control In the recent years, Eysenck has added a third descriptive dimension called Psychoticism, which means a lack of feeling for others. People higher on psychoticism are generally cold, antisocial and hostile whereas people high on socialization are more cooperative, empathetic and helping towards others. All these three dimensions could be measured by Questionnaire prepared by Eysenck called Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Big Five Factor Model of Personality After Cattell, many researchers attempted to reduce the number of trait dimensions and have arrived to more or less similar kind of traits. Paul Costa and Robert Mc Self-Instructional 8 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality Crae examined these possible personality traits and came up with five major personality NOTES factors, which are:  Openness to Experience: It is the willingness of a person to try new things and being open to different experiences. Such people are imaginative, curious and creative. Low scores on this factor are conventional in their working and thinking, they are uncreative and not much curious.  Conscientiousness: It is related to a person’s organisational skills and his motivation. Such people are well organised, punctual and hard working. They are the dependable ones. People low on this factor show laziness, neglect and disorganisation.  Extraversion: This term was first coined by Carl Jung, later used by Eysenck and then by Crae and Costa. Extraverts are outgoing in nature, who love meeting new people, making friends, are assertive and fun loving. On the other hand, introverts are passive, reserved and quiet.  Agreeableness: People high on agreeableness are easy going and good-hearted people. They are pleasant, lenient, and trustworthy. They are ever ready to help others. People low on this factor are critical, irritable and ruthless.  Neuroticism: It refers to emotional stability or instability. Such people worry a lot, remain anxious and self conscious all the time. Low scorers on this are calm, well adjusted and even-tempered. This five-factor model is also called OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism). This model is useful across cultures. On the basis of this model, NEO PI (NEO Personality Inventory) has been developed which is found to be highly reliable and useful source of measuring personality. Although, trait approach became very popular because of it being simple and precise but it has been criticised for being descriptive in nature. The universality of the traits is found to be questionable, and the approach does not throw light on the causal factors behind the behaviour. Self-Instructional Material 9 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES In-Text Questions 3. According to Allport’s trait Theory, Mahatma Gandhi’s Non- violence, falls under which type of traits? a) Central Traits b) Secondary Traits b) Cardinal Traits d) Surface Traits 4. Primary or Source Traits in Cattell’s theory are______ in number. a) 12 b) 6 b) 8 d) 16 5. “Conscientiousness”, in Big Five Factor Model of Personality is related to: a) Creative b) Passive c) Organized and Dependable d) Emotional Unstable 1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach Sigmund Freud formed the basis of Psychodynamic Approach. The important concepts of childhood experiences, instincts and unconscious motivation originated with Freud. For him, the direction of behaviour is influenced by the interaction of instincts (these are biological sources of energy that exert demands on the mind. They are categorised as Life Instinct- Eros and Death Instinct- Thanatos), environment and social prohibitions. The Psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud has four important parts:  Structure of Mind/ Levels of Consciousness  Structure of Personality  Defense Mechanisms  Psychosexual Stages of Development Structure of Mind Freud compared the human mind as iceberg: only a small part of iceberg rises above Self-Instructional 10 Material the surface of water. This visible part for him was conscious mind. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality  Conscious Mind- It includes everything of which a person is aware at any NOTES point of time. It refers to our sensory awareness of the environment and of ourselves. Our present perceptions, thoughts and feelings are part of our conscious mind. E.g., teacher teaching in class, so your senses are perceiving and retaining whatever she is discussing.  Preconscious Mind- It includes information, events, thoughts, feelings, and concerns that is not in awareness at a particular time but can be retrieved and recalled with a little effort. It is also called Subconscious/Preconscious. The preconscious mind exists just beneath the surface of awareness. E.g., cooked a vegetable when you were young, now after 15 years you recall it once you start cooking again.  Unconscious Mind- Freud was especially interested in the unconscious part. He believed that there is a part of mind, which remains hidden all the time. It holds thoughts and desires that are far below the level of person’s awareness. It is the largest part and consists most of the area of iceberg lying below the surface of water. This part of mind surfaces only in symbolic forms. E.g., traumatic childhood memories. Freud argued that most of the psychic processes are unconscious in nature. For him, unconscious awareness was both a reservoir of instinctual drives and a storehouse of all the wishes, feelings and thoughts we conceal from our conscious awareness as it may cause psychological conflicts. Structure of Personality Freud divided personality into three separate but interacting parts: Id, Ego, and Superego. These are not physical divisions, but terms used for strong psychological forces, the existence of which is inferred from the ways people behave. The effectiveness of the interaction between these three systems determine the quality of an individual’s mental health.  Id- It is the first structure to appear in infancy. It is the pool of biological drives that arise from our needs for food, water, love etc. It is the energy source of whole system. The instinctual drive of id is Libido, it is the constructive energy of life primarily sexual in nature. It is illogical and immature part and operates on Pleasure Principle. It only focuses on pleasure without thinking of the outcomes Self-Instructional Material 11 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES of a particular behaviour. E.g., picking a pencil from someone’s house as you really liked it but did not think that it could be seen as stealing.  Ego- Ego is the rational part of personality. It is in direct contact with the external world. Ego develops when the id starts interacting with the environment. The primary role of ego is to serve as a mediator between id and reality. Ego operates on Reality Principle, which means that considering the past experiences it finds the best time to seek most pleasure with least pain. It balances the demands of id with what is practical or real. E.g., asking the elderly for permission before picking up the pencil.  Superego- It includes individual’s conscience, ideals, morals and values. It is the ethical dimension of personality. It represents the duties, morals and standards of society that have become part of the internal world of the individual in course of development of his personality. The superego absorbs all the prohibitions, inhibitions and standards that are expressed by parents and society. It is governed by Morality Principle. It plays on morals and duties. “What ought to be” and “what should be done” is the focus of superego. E.g., giving food to someone who is hungry would be a part of our moral system. Fig. 1.2 Structure of Mind/Personality Self-Instructional Source: www.rhsmpsychology.com 12 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality The conflicts among id, ego and superego are central in Freudian Theory. Freud NOTES proposed that the ego tries to resolve this conflict. Often, it resolves the conflict via Defense Mechanisms. These are mental activities that prevent anxiety (from unbearable thoughts or wishes) to directly affect a person’s mental status. Some of which are: Defense Mechanisms Example Repression Mother’s Impulse to harm troubling a child is denied access to consciousness and is repressed. Rationalization An alcoholic may say- I drink beer, as it is effective for kidney stone. Projection A person who wants to watch a movie, tells his wife that she wants to watch it. Denial If someone really close to you dies, you deny the fact for some days, as you are not able to take that anxiety consciously. Regression A 12-year-old starts bed-wetting after facing deep stress. Reaction Formation A male is attracted to his male friend but outwardly portray an extreme hatred towards homosexuals. Displacement You are angry with your teacher; you cannot take out your anger on her, so you go home and direct that anger to your family members. Sublimation A hostile person becomes a football player. All these defense mechanisms save our ego from threatening anxiety. We use them in lesser degree in our day-to-day lives. The problem occurs when these defense mechanisms are used exaggeratedly and for longer duration. Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud developed an extensive theory about shaping of adult personality by early experiences. Since, he believed that personality develops because of sexual development therefore, he called these stages as psychosexual stages of personality development. He says that at each stage there is a conflict between sexual urges and societal requirements, if there is failure to resolve the conflicts it can lead to fixation, which later on resurfaces during a stressful event. 1. Oral Stage (0 to 1 year): It’s called oral as the erogenous zone is mouth. The focus of pleasure is mouth and Id dominates child. Sucking and biting the breast of mother gives pleasure. The conflict that can arise here will be because of Self-Instructional Material 13 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES rapid weaning (taking the mother’s breast away from the child, who will now drink from a cup). Weaning too soon or too late can result in too little or too much satisfaction of child’s oral needs resulting in oral receptive personality (smoke, drinking, enjoying food, thumb sucking etc.) or oral aggressive character (verbally aggressive, bite nails, sarcastic, argumentative etc.) later on in life. 2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years): Here, the child develops voluntary control over his bowel movements. Hence, the erogenous zone becomes anus. Children in this stage get pleasure from both with- holding and then releasing their faeces (body waste). This allows children to develop self-control. The area of conflict here is toilet training. Strict toilet training leads to “anal retentive personality” (mean, stubborn, clean, perfectionist, dictatorial etc.) and too lenient toilet training leads to “anal expulsive personality”(careless, disorganised, generous etc.) 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): Here, the pleasure zone shifts to genitals. The child finds pleasure in self-stimulation of the genitals. Children understand the difference between sexes by now. According to Freud, Infantile Masturbation starts in this stage. The most important event that occurs during phallic stage is Oedipus complex (Oedipus was a Greek King who unknowingly killed his father and later married his mother) and Electra complex (Electra was a Greek character, who induced her brother to kill their mother). He believed that the boys develop sexual attraction towards mother and girls towards father, they then develop jealousy of same-sex parent and eventually after resolution of this complex, they identify with same sex parent and internalise their values and identities. 4. Latency Stage (6 to 12 years): Here, the sexual instincts remain repressed. There are hidden or latent sexual feelings. Children here are ashamed and disgusted about sexual issues and so they tend to avoid members of other gender. Children are busy learning a range of social, academic and cognitive skills. They grow intellectually, physically and socially. (Learning maths, music, sports etc.) 5. Genital Stage (12 to adulthood): This is the final stage, which represents resurfacing of sex drive. Puberty begins and bodily changes lead to finding pleasure in sexual intercourse. Here also, the main source of pleasure is genital, Self-Instructional but the difference is that focus is on genital of another person rather than oneself. 14 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality Sexual curiosity begins and child becomes attention seeker especially from NOTES opposite gender. Successful resolution of conflict at this stage leads to being able to form deep, mature love relationship and of assuming a place in the world as a fully independent adult. The impact of Freud’s ideas has been immense still there were certain criticisms, which his theory faced. His theory lacked empirical research and many of his ideas were untestable. He was even criticised for over emphasising the role of sexuality and for not giving importance to social and cultural aspects in building of personality. The women theorists criticised him for being biased. Later, several of Freud’s colleagues published theoretical sections that were based on his theories and gave attention to the elements that his theory lacked, such as the social aspect and even the perspective of women. These were Neo- Freudian’s/ Post- Freudian’s (Erick Erickson, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney etc.) Psychodynamic approach includes both theories of Freud and Neo Freudian’s. Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology- Jung emphasised not only on the sexual aspects but also on the aims and aspirations humans have. He spoke about the competing forces within the individual because of which his personality is formed, these forces should be balanced and according to Jung, it is called Individuation. Jung moved beyond unconscious and gave the concept of Collective Unconscious. For him, part of unconscious is personal, and the remaining is common to all human beings. This collective unconscious contains Archetypes. These are universal pattern of images for species, which shape their behaviour. These are transferred from” one generation to another”. They are found in myths, dreams and arts of all humans. E.g., Image of Mother Earth, Sun God etc. Karen Horney: Interpersonal Theory- Horney was a female disciple of Freud. She gave a more optimistic view of humans and their lives. She criticised Freud on his concept of Penis envy. Freud treated women as inferior. Horney challenged this view and emphasised on how each sex has its own strengths and weaknesses and neither of them can be seen as inferior or superior. She showed how women are more influenced by social and cultural factors rather than biological factors. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology- According to Adler, human beings are inherently social beings, they are motivated by social interest, welfare of others, cooperation, and personal goals. They have tendency to choose and create, their Self-Instructional Material 15 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES personal choices provide them motivation. Adler believed that, as children we are helpless and dependent, we have an inborn feeling of inferiority. To overcome this feeling, we strive for superiority. Our personality development depends on the lifestyle we use while overcoming this inferiority complex. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development- He was one of the most influential Ego psychologists. He laid importance to the rational ego in personality development. Like Freud, he too proposed stages of personality development, but his stages are psychosocial in nature and unfold over course of entire life cycle. Erickson divided life into eight stages, each characterized by a vital psychosocial crisis. These crises are resolved through interaction with society and people around. His concept of Identity Crisis (Failure to achieve ego identity during adolescence) became very famous. Psychodynamic approach hence not only included Freud’s core aspects but also laid importance to the social and cultural aspects missed by him. However, this approach faced criticisms as it is based largely on case studies and small and atypical samples. In-Text Questions 6. In which psychosexual stage, Fixation might result into a habit of Smoking? a) Phallic b) Oral c) Anal d) Genital 7. Carl Jung spoke about a part of mind, which contains universal memories of all humankind. This part is called: a) Personal Unconscious b) Conscious b) Preconscious d) Collective Unconscious 8. According to Adler, Human being strive for- a) Inferiority b) Superiority b) Hope d) Death 1.5.3 Social-Cognitive Approach Self-Instructional For behaviourists, personality is not related to the internal dynamics. They believe that 16 Material whatever is definable and measurable would formulate personality. Their major focuses © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality were on stimulus- response connection, learning and reinforcement. According NOTES to them, personality is the response to the environment. The internal events like thoughts, feelings and motivation are irrelevant for behaviourists as they are not measurable. However, with time the role of cognition has also been acknowledged in the development of personality. Some theories, which are classified under this approach, are: Skinner Behaviorism Skinner emphasised on the role of consequence of behaviour in the development of personality. He defined a special kind of learning called “Operant Conditioning”. It is the learning of voluntary behaviour through the effects of pleasant or unpleasant consequences. So, the possibility of a behaviour to happen in future is depended on the consequences of that behaviour presently. The key components of Operant Conditioning are Reinforcement and Punishment.  Reinforcement: Any stimulus when following a particular response leads to a particular kind of outcome, which increases the probability of that response to happen again. E.g., getting good marks leads to a chocolate from parents hence the response of good marks would increase.  Punishment: Any event that when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again is called punishment. It weakens the occurrence of a particular response. E.g., disrespecting elders leads to scolding, hence the disrespecting behaviour weakens. It would not happen again. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura emphasised on the cognitive aspect. He showed that people learn cognitively by observing others. The learning does not take place merely by experiencing rewards. Most of the social learning, which occurs, is because of observation. Learning through observation is also called Modeling. E.g., after listening to moralistic story, you try to behave like the hero did, by seeing your parents’ brushing teeth at night before sleeping you start performing as they do. Bandura also used the term “Reciprocal Determinism”, to explain how environment, behaviour and cognitive factors of a person work in interplay leading in Self-Instructional a particular kind of behaviour. All these three factors influence behaviour. One of the Material 17 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES most important personal variables, which he emphasised on, was “Self Efficacy”, it refers to a person’s belief or perception of how effective a behaviour will be in a particular situation. Higher self-efficacy builds on the competence, commitment and perseverance level of a person. Hence, Bandura believed that to understand a person’s personality, it’s important to understand his personal, environmental, and behavioural variables and these personal variables are most affected by modeling, self-beliefs, and self-expectations. Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda – The Cognitive Effective Personality System (CAPS) Mischel was a student of Kelly and he worked with Bandura on cognitive aspects. Mischel is an important person in cognitive revolution. Mischel and Shoda described CAPS- Cognitive Affective Personality System. CAPS is a system consisting of 5 different variables which are continuously interacting with environment and with one another generating the distinctive pattern of behaviour which eventually formulate a person’s personality. These five variables are-  Encoding Strategies  Expectancies and Belief  Goals and Values  Affect  Competencies and Self regulatory behaviour  Encoding and Personal Construct- Encoding is a mental categorisation and interpretation of situation. We all represent a particular situation in a particular manner in our brains, these are being sorted by us in our personal construct category.  Expectations and Belief - Expectation of the outcome is an important factor in conduction of a particular behaviour. It’s an “if then” choice, so the belief that a particular behaviour would lead to a particular outcome basically decides our actions.  Goals and Values- The maintenance of any behaviour is related to the motivation with which that behaviour is being done. Our goals and value system decides the Self-Instructional 18 Material zeal with which we face all the barriers and achieve what we want to. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality  Affect- Our emotions are directly related to how we perceive situations and it NOTES eventually impacts how we would be behaving in that situation.  Competencies and self-regulatory behaviour- Controlling and regulating one’s behaviour is the most important ability, which helps a person to maintain behaviour in diverse situations. Self-administration and regulation lead to adjustment of the person and helps in self-directed behaviour. It’s important to understand that the interplay of all these variables with diverse situations lead to the formation of unique personalities styles. The behaviourists and cognitive psychologists have always laid importance to discovering and identifying the universal laws of learning and the differences in behaviour among people, but they are criticised on rejection of the notion of self actualization, unconscious conflict, importance to past and much more. In-Text Questions 9. Which of the following is not a part of CAPS? a) Expectancies and Belief b) Goals and Values c) Affect d) Decision Making 1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach The psychodynamic theorists have long emphasised the unconscious drive and conflict, but the phenomenological and humanistic perspectives gained its importance in 1950s. It emphasised on the immediate conscious experience of the person in his own environment. The attention is not on past but on the present; it also views human beings as inherently positive and good. The primary interest of humanistic theories is in experiencing people, focusing on the present, emphasising on personal responsibility, focusing on personal growth and ultimately emphasising on improvement. Major theories under this approach are: George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory This theory was developed by Kelly during 1950s. Kelly laid importance to personal meaning. He believed that the goal of human beings is to extract personal meaning Self-Instructional Material 19 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES from the situations. Every one of us is trying to make sense out of the world but when we are not able to do so in difficult situations, then we experience uncertainty and anxiety. To reduce this uncertainty and to enhance understanding we try to anticipate and predict, and this is how we construct a reality. Our personal constructs are basically cognitive categories in which we sort different people, events, and objects in our life. Our perceptions and beliefs are channelised by these personal constructs and eventually we behave in accordance with our psychological internal world. So, according to Kelly if we need to understand a person’s personality and his behaviour, it’s important to understand his internal psychological world. Carl Rogers Self Theory Rogers developed a theory of self and the condition that allows for its growth. Personality, according to Rogers could be explained by following constructs:  Self: For Rogers, self was an internal image of oneself, which is build by one’s own perception of one’s life and interaction of significant people in one’s life. This image of oneself is called Self Concept (it contains belief, perception, attribution, goals, aspirations related to oneself). Rogers proposed two types of self- Real Self and Ideal Self. Real self is one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits and abilities of a person and ideal self is one’s perception of whom one should be or would like to be. Rogers used the term Congruence to show harmony between real and ideal self. The more the congruence between real and ideal self, the more the person would be competent and capable. If there is incongruence between real and ideal self, the result would be anxiety and neurotic problems.  Fully Functioning Person: Rogers believed that every human has the need to become full functioning. He believed that humans have many positive characteristics; they strive to experience life to the fullest. Becoming fully functional would mean understanding own urges, acting on constructive impulses and feelings and being in touch with oneself.  Positive Regard: Rogers defined positive regard as love, warmth, care, affection and respect that comes from significant others. He believed that to become fully Self-Instructional 20 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality functional, a person needs to have Unconditional Positive Regard, which means NOTES that his parents or other significant people should not attach any strings with their love. They need to provide love and respect to the person without any conditions. For Rogers, personality is formulated when through unconditional positive regard, there occurs congruence in real and ideal self of a person, and he moves on to become Fully Functioning Being. Fig. 1.3 Carl Rogers Self-Theory Humanistic approach to personality became popular because of its fresh outlook towards humans. Humanistic theorists believed in active and optimistic nature of human being, which was missing from earlier approaches but there were many criticisms to this approach too. Like - the abstract and difficult to measure concept of self-actualization or fully functioning person. Even the internal conflicts and unconscious part of personality was not taken in account. In-Text Questions 10. The concept of Fully Functioning Person and Positive Regard was given by: a) Carl Rogers b) Adler c) Bandura d) Freud Self-Instructional Material 21 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 1.6 CULTURE, GENDER AND PERSONALITY As we discussed earlier that both biological and environmental factors impact a person’s personality hence, it’s also important to study the environment which has an impact on the behaviour of the person. This environment could be studied at different levels and the surroundings could be divided as personal, social and cultural. The culture we are born and brought up in, have certain defined norms and value system. These norms and values influence the way we perceive, relate, and behave in situations. These aspects not only include the physical environment where a person lives in but the social and religious aspects, which affect a person’s personality. The habitat a person lives in decides what kind of economic status that person would have, and these economic statuses would in turn decide the social structure, child- rearing practices and work division in the family. These aspects in totality take on a person’s overall learning environment. With these, the different rituals, ceremonies, plays, religious activities all define how and what type of personality a person would have. The different aspects and dimensions which could be studied while focusing on culture and its impact on personal development is tightness and complexity. Tightness over here means how many rules are there for the performance of behaviour in a particular culture and complexity means the diversity of values and norms. It’s important to understand the differences between the collectivistic and individualistic cultures in terms of disposition, identity, personal norms, etc. Collectivistic cultures are closer and more interdependent on one another whereas individualistic cultures are much more open and propagate dependence on oneself. E.g.: Americans had the themes of industriousness, success, competition, independence and as a result the people tend to be ambitious & aggressive & put work & career over family whereas Indians are more dependent, affiliated to each other hence their family comes before personal achievement. 1.6.1 Gender schemas Gender schemas are an organised cognitive structure that contains our understanding Self-Instructional 22 Material of attributes, beliefs, norms and behaviours that are expected from males and females © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality in a particular society. These gender schemas become a part of our cognitive NOTES comprehension through the process of socialisation. It influences personality and behaviour both. For e.g., males are encouraged for more emotional strength and self- sufficiency in comparison to females. On the other hand, females are expected to be more kind, helpful and emotional in the interpersonal relationship. The culture also plays an important role over here like; there is more gender fluidity in America as compared to collectivistic culture like India. Once the understanding of varied approaches has been generated, it is important to know about the formal analysis and measurement of personality, “Personality assessment” is done through Self Report Personality Inventories/Psychometric Tests or Structured Personality Tests/ Paper- Pencil Tests, Projective Techniques and Behavioral assessment Tools. 1.7 SOLVED ILLUSTRATIONS  Knowing one’s own Personality, helps in Self Growth and Self Enhancement, it tells a person about their limitations and the ways to overcome them. (NEO-PI, Keirsey Temperament Sorter, California Psychological Inventory, Maudsley Personality Inventory)  Personality testing is an important tool for organisational and industrial sector. (Behavioral Observations and Personality Interviews, MBTI, FIRO-B)  To cure any mental problem the first and foremost step is to understand that problem for which in-depth understanding of that client’s personality is necessary, personality assessment helps in that too. (TAT, SCT, DAP, Rorschach Inkblot Test) 1.8 SUMMARY Self and personality are generally used interchangeable. Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his Self-Instructional Material 23 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the environment. Different theories and approaches have been developed for understanding of personality. These theories and approaches are based on different models or schools of psychology explaining human behaviour. The most important of these are: Trait Approach, Psychodynamic Approach, Social- Cognitive Approach and Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach. Traits are specific psychological attributes along which individual tend to differ. Trait Approach has been emphasised by Allport, Cattell and Eysenck. Freud developed psychoanalytical approach and the important concepts of childhood experiences and Unconscious motivation originated with him. He discussed about the Structure of Mind, Personality, Psychosexual Stages and Defense Mechanisms. Post-Freudian theorists focus on societal and cultural impact on personality, interpersonal forces and present conditions of life of a person. Some of these important theorists are Jung, Adler, Horney and Erikson. Social-Cognitive Theorists believed that whatever is definable and measurable would formulate personality. There major focuses were on stimulus- response connection, learning and reinforcement. Bandura, Skinner, Mischel and Shoda; also, are important theorists under this approach. Phenomenological and Humanistic approach studies individual as a whole, focusing on his subjective experience, self and personal growth. The cultural aspects and gender schemes influence a person’s behaviour through socialization process. 1.9 GLOSSARY  Anal Stage- Psychosexual stage in which source of conflict is anus.  Big Five Factor-5 primary factors of Personality (OCEAN)  CAPS- Cognitive Affective Personality System  Cardinal Traits- In Allport’s Theory, a trait which impacts almost every behaviour of a person.  Cognition- Process of Knowing  Conditioning- Learning to engage in a particular behaviour as it leads to a particular outcome every time. Self-Instructional  Ego- Works on reality principle 24 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Personality  Fully Functioning Person- Person functioning at an optimum level (Rogers) NOTES  Id- Works on pleasure principle  Oedipus Complex- Unconscious psychological conflict where the child is attracted towards parent of opposite gender.  Self-Efficacy- Grading one’s own worth.  Unconditional Positive Regard- Respect which is not contingent on specific behaviours. 1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. (b) Unstable 2. (a) Amygdala 3. (c) Cardinal traits 4. (d) 16 5. (c) Organized and Dependable 6. (b) Oral 7. (d) Collective Unconscious 8. (b) Superiority 9. (d) Decision Making 10. (a) Carl Rogers 1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Define Personality. Discuss major approaches to personality in short. 2. Discuss the structure of personality, explained by Freud with relevant examples. 3. Highlight the key concepts of social-cognitive approach. Self-Instructional Material 25 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 4. Explain the major constituents of Phenomenological-humanistic approach through appropriate examples. 5. Elaborate the personality development process through the lenses of culture and gender schemes. 1.12 REFERENCES  Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt.  Baraon, R. A. & Misra, G. E. (2014). Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.  Chadha, N.K. & Seth, S. (2014). The Psychological Realm: An Introduction. New Delhi: Pinnacle Learning.  Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E. & Misra, G. (2013). Psychology, South Asian Edition. New Delhi: Pearson Education.  Morgan, C. T., Rosen, J. W., Morgan, C. T., & King, R. A. (1975). Introduction to Psychology: Fifth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS  N.K. Chadha and S.S. Phulia (2007) General Psychology (In Hindi). Sri Sai Printographers: New Delhi  N.K. Chadha and Salma Seth (eds) (2013) The Psychological Realm. Pinnacle Learning: New Delhi  Passer, M.W. & Smith, R.E. (2010). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior. Tata McGraw-Hill.  https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14676494 Self-Instructional 26 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi UNIT II: INTELLIGENCE LESSON 2 INTELLIGENCE Intelligence LESSON 2 NOTES INTELLIGENCE Dr. Madhulika Bajpai Associate Professor, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi Email-Id: [email protected] Structure 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Approaches to Understanding Intelligence 2.3.1 Psychometric Approach 2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory 2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence 2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches 2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 2.4 Broader Conceptions of Intelligence 2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence 2.4.2 Emotional Intelligence 2.4.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence 2.5 Heredity, Environment and Intelligence 2.6 Extremes of Intelligence 2.6.1 Intellectually Gifted 2.6.2 Intellectual Disability 2.7 Summary 2.8 Glossary 2.9 Answers to In-Text Questions 2.10 Self-Assessment Questions 2.11 References 2.12 Suggested Readings Self-Instructional Material 29 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To help students understand the basic tenets of human intelligence.  To understand the different approaches to intelligence and their applications.  Gain insight into the role of nature-nurture in understanding and development of intelligence.  To understand the two ends of the intelligence continuum. 2.2 INTRODUCTION “The measure of intelligence is the ability to change.” - Albert Einstein Do you agree with this definition? Are you aware of other quotes defining intelligence conceptualised by famous personalities? You may even have your description of what intelligence means to you. Which one is appropriate and should be followed is not an easy option, especially when we are spoilt for choices. In our endeavour to learn about individual differences, intelligence is one of the most significant concepts that provides several insights into understanding human behaviour. Refer to the Video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xTz3QjcloI) The quest for what represents human intelligence is not linear. Most often than not, when discussing intelligence, it usually indicates intellectual abilities. (Refer to Fig. 2.1). But is intelligence restricted to these abilities alone? Can there be only one kind of intelligence, or is there more? Can it be measured? Can it be learnt? These are some of the questions that may arise in the mind of a psychology student. Let us understand each of them in the subsequent sections. Self-Instructional 30 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence NOTES Fig. 2.1 General Characteristics of Intelligence Definitions The word intelligence derives its origin from the Latin verb ‘intellegere’, which translates to understanding. Some of the definitions given by the eminent researchers include: “Intelligence is the judgment or common sense, initiative, the ability to adapt oneself” and again “to judge well, understand well, reason well —these are the essentials of intelligence.” - Alfred Binet (1905) “The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment” - David Weschler, (1958) “The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilise thought and reason.” - APA Dictionary of Psychology “Intelligence is the mental ability necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context.” - Robert Sternberg (1985) All the above definitions suggest a few common elements that constitute intelligence, which include factors mentioned in Fig 2.1 and a general mastery of one’s environment for adapting to its dynamic demands. For more definitions, Click Here: https://educationsummary.com/lesson/definition-of-intelligence-in-psychology- Self-Instructional by-different-psychologists/ Material 31 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES In-Text Questions 1. What is the purpose of studying intelligence? a) To understand what makes some people more innovative than others. b) To improve educational systems and teaching methods c) Both a and b 2. What is Intelligence? a) The ability to read. b) The ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations. c) The ability to lift heavy weights. d) The ability to play a musical instrument. 3. Intelligence is a complex construct that involves a variety of cognitive processes, including __________ and problem-solving skills. a) Memory b) Decision-Making b) Attention d) All of the Above 2.3 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE In the preceding section, we have understood how intelligence was defined by different psychologists as the research on intelligence evolved in the last century. We shall now try to understand the concept of intelligence in an in-depth manner through the various theories proposed. Psychologists have employed several approaches to study the concept of intelligence. However, for ease of understanding, those can be classified under two psychometric and cognitive approaches. The focus of the psychometric approach has been to study what constitutes intelligence and highlight the different types of proficiencies for assessing performances on the test. On the other hand, cognitive approaches were rooted in exploring the different thought processes that aid those mental proficiencies. Self-Instructional 32 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence 2.3.1 Psychometric Approach NOTES Psychometric theories attempt to explain the concept by quantifying and measuring intelligence. The theorists believe intelligence is an inborn ability determined by genes. As per the theories, a person’s intelligence is determined by his/her ability to think, solve problems, and memorise for future recall. Psychometric theories can be attributed to developing intelligence tests. We shall study how psychometrics helped provide insights into studying and measuring intelligence. Psychometric researchers have long tried to recognise the mental abilities that determine and enable the performance of individuals on varied tasks. The underlying idea was that if an individual’s performance was similar across various ability tests, it could be attributed to the same capability. To identify these different measures of cognitive abilities, those were correlated with one another. Similar experiments were carried out with other variables to test for any correlation. These experiments intended to provide insights into the underlying abilities responsible for the performance or lack of it in an individual. The statistical factor analysis technique was applied to infer from the enormous data generated via these experiments. It helped in identifying underlying links among the different variables being studied. 2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory This set of psychometric experiments indicating a common ability responsible for success in different mental ability tests paved the path for Charles Spearman’s theory of “General Intelligence”, popularly known as “g Factor Theory” (1904). Spearman was the first psychologist to use statistical principles to analyse and interpret human intelligence. Through his research, he found that students’ performance in some papers was highly correlated but not entirely. He found similar results in Simon-Binet’s intelligence tests (arithmetic, problem-solving, vocabulary etc.). While evaluating the performance, he found that high scorers performed consistently across tests. Similarly, individuals scoring low on one aptitude test scored lower marks on the other aptitude tests as well. He deduced that a high correlation in performances indicates a presence of a general ability that translates to similar performance across subjects/test variables. Self-Instructional Spearman proposed that the performance could be a function of a “g factor” (general Material 33 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES intelligence) and also as a result of some specific skill needed for that particular subject/ variable, which he called an “s factor” (specific intelligence). He proposed that high performance on any given task reflects general intelligence, further compounded with specific intelligence (Fig. 2.2). Student scoring high in physics could be a result of her general intelligence as well as the specific ability to ace the subject. Spearman’s theory provided significant insights into human intelligence. Many researchers have supported it even after 100 years since it was proposed, both in academics and professional success (Kuncel et al., 2004; Lubinski, 2004; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). Fig. 2.2 The ‘g’ and ‘s’ factors of Spearman’s Two Factor Theory Criticism of Spearman’s theory of intelligence has primarily focused on his reliance on the concept of general intelligence. While Spearman argued that a single factor of general intelligence (g) underlies all intellectual activity, some theorists, like E. L. Thorndike (1926), proposed that intelligence is a sum total of several distinct characteristics and not a result of only one kind. Howard Gardner suggested that multiple distinct abilities better explain intelligence. Similarly, Raymond Cattel, one of his students, argued through his theory of two types of intelligence (which shall Self-Instructional 34 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence be covered in the next segment) that intelligence is dynamic and continues to evolve NOTES and expand. Additionally, Spearman’s emphasis on the “g factor” as the only intelligence source has been criticised as overlooking individual differences and emphasising the differences between individuals. This assumption can also create binaries of being either intelligent or not intelligent based on their “g” scores alone rather than recognising the distinctive combination of abilities each individual may possess. Thurstone’s theory of intelligence has been influential in the domain of intelligence testing, and his ideas are still widely used today. Thurstone extended Spearmen’s work utilising matrix algebra to demonstrate that seven primary abilities, rather than the “g” factor, better fit the data than the two-factor theory. These abilities (Fig. 2.3) are used to measure intelligence and can be used to assess the mental capabilities of individuals. Thurstone argued that these abilities are independent and that the sum of their abilities determines a person’s overall intelligence. Based on these abilities, he constructed a measure of intelligence, the “Test of Primary Mental Abilities” (PMA). Fig. 2.3 Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities Self-Instructional Material 35 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence Fig. 2.4 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence Raymond Cattell (1971) and John Horn (1985) developed this theory of intelligence. They extended Spearman’s theory by proposing that intelligence is composed of not one but two distinct types of cognitive ability, crystallised (gc) and fluid (gf ) intelligence. Crystallised intelligence is the ability to utilise previously learnt/acquired knowledge and skills to solve problems, whereas fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly and solve novel problems accordingly. Crystallised intelligence shall be helpful in tasks related to vocabulary, comprehension etc. On the other hand, fluid intelligence can come in handy for solving puzzles and coming up with solutions to conceptual challenges. According to the theory, these two types of intelligence are independent of one another yet complement each other. These can also be measured separately using psychometric tests (Fig. 2.5.). Cattell and Horn concluded that humans shift from utilising fluid intelligence to depending more on crystallised intelligence over the lifespan. This shift was also attributed to relying on long-term memory to aid while dealing with similar challenges, thus using crystallised intelligence. Kunzman & Baltes (2003) called it the ‘essence of wisdom’. Self-Instructional 36 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence NOTES Intelligence Vocabulary Tests Raven’s Progressive General Knowledge Crystallized Intelligence Fluid Matrices Test Wechsler Tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Intelligence Scale for Children Fig. 2.5 Tests Measuring gf-gc Intelligence The theory was criticised for being overly reductionist and relying too heavily on psychometric testing. Another criticism highlights inadequate attention to the complexities of human intelligence and the fact that intelligence can be expressed in myriad ways than just the two mentioned. Finally, the theory does not adequately account for individual differences in intelligence or the effects of culture, environment, and other factors on intelligence. Although, Cattell and Horn suggested that intelligence is influenced by both heredity and environment and that it is malleable and can also be improved with effort. While the theory of intelligence remains a vital contribution to intelligence studies, it is crucial to consider these criticisms to understand the nature of intelligence better. In-Text Questions 4. __________ proposed that intelligence is a single general ability that can be measured by intelligence tests. 5. What is the difference between Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized intelligence? a) Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations, while crystallized intelligence is knowledge acquired through experience. b) Fluid intelligence is knowledge acquired through experience, while crystallized intelligence is the ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations. c) Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are the same. d) Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are unrelated to intelligence. Self-Instructional Material 37 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES 6. Which of the following is an example of fluid intelligence? a) The ability to recall specific dates in history. b) The ability to solve a new problem without prior experience or instruction. c) The ability to speak multiple languages fluently. d) The ability to recite a poem from memory. 2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches As we learned in the previous sections, psychometric theories mapped human minds well and highlighted how people differed in intelligence. However, these theories failed to explain why people differed in these mental abilities. Cognitive set of theories thus aimed to find the specific processes that determine intellectual skills. 2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence This section will study Robert Sternberg’s “triarchic theory” of intelligence (1985, 1989). Through his approach, he highlighted the underlying psychological processes’ role and included the different manifestations of intelligence. Sternberg divided this information processing approach into three different components (Fig. 2.6). Fig. 2.6 Sternberg Information Processing Approach Meta components include what helps an individual to plan, monitor and review activities. Performance components enable one to carry out what is planned with the help of meta components. Knowledge-acquisition components come in handy to learning and acquiring skills for problem-solving. The information processing Self-Instructional approach could be elaborated with an example of a researcher who outlines a research 38 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence plan (meta components), conducts the study (performance components), learn new NOTES findings and gain insights after successfully carrying out the study (knowledge- acquisition components). As the title (triarchic) of the theory suggested, Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence (Fig. 2.7). He added that even if there are variations/alternate interpretations of what is considered intelligence across cultures, the mental processes required to arrive at them remain the same. He categorised these processes into the following three: Analytical Practical Creative Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence  It is used for  This is needed for dealing or  It refers to analysing, resolving issues pertaining to cognitive comparing day to day lives at home or skills needed and work. to formulate evaluating.  It is also sometimes referred new ideas and  These to as being street smart or also adapt to abilities can having tacit knowledge- new, be tested by abilities needed to effectively uncharted conventional handle/adjust to immediate territories. intelligence environment without any tests. formal training or expertise. Fig. 2.7 Types of Intelligence Through this theory, Sternberg suggested that even if the three types of intelligence have a trace of the “g” factor, as suggested by Spearman, they are independent in their own right. Through his subsequent studies, he also concluded that educational curriculum should lay equal emphasis on all three types of skills and not only on analytical skills. Triarchic theory provides a comprehensive understanding of information processing, especially problem-solving. According to (Eysenck, 1998), “the triarchic theory bridges the gap between intelligence and research in problem-solving”. Self-Instructional Material 39 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Psychology of Individual Differences NOTES However, the theory is critiqued for limiting itself to merely an intelligent behaviour/ abilities index. It does not provide any insights or pathways to acquiring new knowledge. In-Text Questions 7. Which of the following was not proposed as a component of triarchic theory? a) Emotional component b) Meta component c) Knowledge-acquisition component d) Performance component 8. According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence is composed of which of these three components? a) Cognitive, practical, and creative b) Social, emotional, and physical c) Analytical, creative, and practical d) Logical, linguistic, and spatial 2.4 BROADER CONCEPTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE 2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Intelligence has long been considered as a mental competence that IQ tests can measure. Howard Gardner empirically challenged this idea. He proposed that intelligence could be viewed as an inclusive ability that enables one to rise to the demands of the ever- evolving environment. He attempted to change the direction of empirical inquiry by proposing that research should focus on finding answers to “How are you smart?” than “How smart are you?” Pursuing his quest for this answer, he proposed the theory of “multiple intelligences” (Gardner, 2000). He proposed seven different bits of intelligence and later added the last two, later to the list (Fig 2.8,) which can be used to describe a person’s cognitive abilities: Self-Instructional 40 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Intelligence  Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use language to express ideas and NOTES thoughts, read, and write.  Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to solve logical & complex problems, understand patterns and relationships, and use mathematical skills. Scientists and engineers are adept at this type.  Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The ability to think in pictures and manipulate objects in space. Architects, pilots and artists are gifted with this kind of intelligence.  Musical Intelligence: The ability to understand, create and appreciate the elements of music. Singers, music composers and instrumentalists demonstrate this kind of competence.  Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to use one’s body to express ideas and feelings and precisely manipulate objects. Sports personnel and dancers are competent in this ability.  Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand, interact and work with others. Leaders and therapists shall display such intelligence.