Indian Philosophy PDF

What is Philosophy? If you’ve ever wondered whether God exists, whether life has a purpose, whether beauty is in the eye of the beholder, what makes actions right or wrong, or whether a law is fair or just, then you’ve thought about philosophy. Philos’ meaning ‘love’ and ‘Sophia’ meaning ‘knowledge’...

What is Philosophy? If you’ve ever wondered whether God exists, whether life has a purpose, whether beauty is in the eye of the beholder, what makes actions right or wrong, or whether a law is fair or just, then you’ve thought about philosophy. Philos’ meaning ‘love’ and ‘Sophia’ meaning ‘knowledge’[Love for Knowledge] Pythagoras, a Presocratic philosopher, was the one who first used the phrase.  What is Philosophy? The most general definition of philosophy is that it is the pursuit of wisdom, truth, and knowledge. According to Aristotle: Philosophical inquiry seeks to understand the true nature of supernatural substances. As said by Socrates: “Philosophy is a daily activity”. As stated by Hegel: “Philosophy is that which grasps its own era in thought.” As stated by Karl Marks: “Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order to change it”.  What is Philosophy? Physicists ask what caused some event; philosophers ask whether causation even exists Historians study figures who fought for justice; philosophers ask what justice is or whether their causes were in fact just Economists study the allocation of capital; philosophers debate the ethical merits of capitalism. The four main areas of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic:  What is Philosophy? Metaphysics The study of reality, or what exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is organized, is fundamental to the field of metaphysics. Philosophers in metaphysics discuss issues like these: Does God exist? What does truth mean? Epistemology- Knowledge What we can know about the world and how we can know it are its main concerns. Commonly raised concerns in epistemology are: Knowledge: What is it? Do we have any knowledge at all?  What is Philosophy? Ethics The optimal course of action Therefore, the ethicist tries to respond to queries like these: What’s impressive? What characterizes excellent deeds or people? Which is correct? What justifies certain behaviors? Logic The justifications or explanations offered by people for their responses to these queries constitute another important facet of the study of philosophy. What makes thinking “good” or “bad”? How can we judge whether a particular line of argument is sound or flawed?  Problems of Philosophy The basic problems of philosophy have been the same in the East as in West. A general characteristic of these problems was that they were concerned with general and universal questions and not with the questions and not with the questions of particular nature. In this sense philosophical problems are different from scientific problems which have their origin in particular questions. Some examples of philosophical problems are: What is knowledge? What is the world? Who has created this world? Is there a God? Who am I? What is the aim of my life? Why should I live? What is the purpose of the? etc.  Some of the Prominent Indian Philosopher Gautama Buddha: The founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, taught that the ultimate goal of life is to achieve enlightenment, or the state of complete liberation from suffering. He emphasized the importance of ethical conduct, meditation, and mindfulness in achieving this goal. Adi Shankara: a 9th-century philosopher credited with reviving Hinduism and re-establishing the authority of the Vedas. He is best known for his philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, which teaches that the ultimate reality of the universe is Brahman, a non-dual, infinite consciousness. Swami Vivekananda: A 19th-century philosopher and spiritual leader, Swami Vivekananda was instrumental in introducing Indian philosophy and spirituality to the West. He emphasized the importance of self-realization, service to others, and the unity of all religions.  Some of the Prominent Indian Philosopher Rabindranath Tagore: A poet, playwright, and philosopher, Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature for his work Geetanjali. His philosophy emphasized the importance of harmony between humanity and nature and the need for spiritual and moral values in a rapidly changing world. Jiddu Krishnamurti: a 20th-century philosopher and spiritual teacher who rejected all forms of authority, including organized religion and traditional philosophy. He emphasized the importance of self-awareness and critical thinking in achieving true freedom and spiritual growth.  What is Logic The term "logic" came from the Greek word logos, which is sometimes translated as "sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", and "ratio". A logic is just a set of rules and techniques for distinguishing good reasoning from bad. The foundation of a logical argument is its proposition or statement. The proposition is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false). Premises are the propositions used to build the argument. The argument is then built on premises. Then an inference is made from the premises. Finally, a conclusion is drawn.  What is Logic If Tom is a philosopher, then Tom is poor. [ Premises] Tom is a philosopher. [ Premises] Therefore, Tom is poor. [ Conclusion] The study of logic is divided into two main categories: formal and informal. Formal logic is the formal study of logic.  What is Logic The purpose of formal logic is to eliminate any imprecision or lack of objectivity in evaluating arguments Formal Logic Premises: Bicycles have two wheels. Jan is riding a bicycle. Conclusion: Jan is riding on two wheels. Explanation: The premises are true and so is the conclusion. Informal logic is logic applied outside of formal study and is most often used in college, business, and life. Informal Logic Premises: Nikki saw a black cat on her way to work. At work, Nikki got fired. Conclusion: Black cats are bad luck. Explanation: This is a big generalization and can’t be verified.  What is Logic Logic teaches us how to recognize good and bad arguments—not just arguments about logic, but any argument. You are confronted with a question: “Should I buy this car or that car?” “Should I go to this college or that college?” You listen to the reasons for and against various options and must choose among them. Two types of logical arguments—Inductive and Deductive  What is Logic What Is Deductive Argument? [General idea to Specific conclusion ] A deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supposed to follow from its premises with absolute certainty, thus leaving no possibility that the conclusion doesn’t follow from the premises. If a deductive argument fails to guarantee the truth of the conclusion, then the deductive argument can no longer be called a deductive argument. Example Premise All insects have exactly six legs. Premise Spiders have eight legs. Conclusion Therefore, spiders are not an insect  What is Logic What Is Inductive Argument? [Specific to General] In contrast to a deductive argument, an inductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supposed to follow from its premises with a high level of probability, which means that although it is possible that the conclusion doesn’t follow from its premises, it is unlikely that this is the case. Example Tweets is a healthy, normally functioning bird. (premise) Most healthy, normally functioning birds fly. (premise) Therefore, Tweets probably fly. (Conclusion)  Benefits of Reading Logic 1. Decision making: Logic helps to evaluate all available options and choose the best variant. 2. Analyzing problems: Logical thinking helps to identify the causes of failure in life and develop the best plan of act 3. Development of critical thinking: Logic allows you to critically evaluate incoming information. 4. Improve communication: Logic helps structure thoughts and express them more accurately and clearly. 5. Development of strategies: Logical thinking allows you to predict the possible consequences of your actions and develop ambitious plans to achieve your goals. 6. Conflict resolution: You will be able to find compromises faster and resolve disputes with the least damage to all parties if you turn on the logic  What is the connection between logic and philosophy? The Relationship Between Philosophy and Logic is a complex one. Logic is the study of correct reasoning, while Philosophy studies general problems. Logic, on the other hand, does not generally care about the meaning of the conclusions it draws. On the other hand, philosophy strives to solve problems through logical means. Logic is the language of human thought and is fundamental to the study of knowledge. Philosophers debate the relationship between logic and science.  What is the connection between logic and philosophy? Logic is the study of correct reasoning Logicians study mathematical objects such as models, deductive systems, and sentences. The properties and relations that logicians study are soundness, completeness, and logical language. As the study of correct reasoning is closely related to epistemology, logic is a branch of philosophy that has a practical application in everyday life. Philosophy is the study of general problems The fields of law, medicine, computer science, and public relations are all based on the study of philosophy. In addition to studying general problems, philosophy also deals with the principles of truth and value. It is used to understand the standards of evidence that other disciplines use to make decisions. It also involves the study of logic and epistemology, which have a direct bearing on the various fields of knowledge.  Indian Philosophy- Six Schools The schools of Indian philosophy are divided into two types they are Astika (orthodox) Nastika (heterodox). The orthodox systems are usually numbered as six and the heterodox system are three. Orthodox- Yoga, Sankhya, Vendanta,Vasisheshika, Naya, Mimasa, Heterodox- Charavaka, Buddhism, Jainism  Indian Philosophy- Six Schools Yoga- Patanjili- Practical method for direct experience Sankhya- Kapila- Framework of Manifestation Vedanta- Veda Vyasa- Contemplative Self-inquiry Vasisheshika- Kanada-Physical Sciences Naya- Gautama- Reasoning Mimasa- Jaimini -Freedom through action  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? Some of the basic questions that we humans want answered, even Modern Science is also looking at these questions - - What is life or why do we live? Where were we before our birth? What happens to us when we die? What is the nature of this universe? But most of the time, scientists are more concerned with - “How is this or that made or works” rather than “Why” part of the question. Caraka defines meaningful life not only in terms of an ethically virtuous life, but also in terms of a healthy life. He uses the term Āyurveda in the general sense of the science of life. For Caraka, life consists of sukha (happiness), dukha (unhappiness), hita (good), and ahita (bad)  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? There are some well-known theories of science, such as – i) Kirlian Effect ii) Theory of Evolution. iii) Big Bang Theory.  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? 1. Kirlian Effect : Philosophy # Kirlian photography is a collection of photographic techniques used to capture the phenomenon of electrical coronal discharges. It is named after Soviet scientist Semyon Kirlian, who, in 1939, accidentally discovered that if an object on a photographic plate is connected to a high-voltage source, an image is produced on the photographic plate. Two main theories have been propounded in all Hindu Indian Philosophy. First, Immortality of the soul, second Rebirth. Modern Science does not agree with soul or rebirth. At least till now what is discovered does not sufficiently prove the existence of soul and birth, yet it does not say that no discovery was made in this matter. The newly invented Kirlian Effect has started to prove the existence of a subtle body of either living or non-living.  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? According to Vedanta Philosophy, our body of ours is formed with inanimate atoms. So, this body is inanimate and unconscious. What we call a subtle body is also of that type. According to the Sankhya System, a subtle body is a very little body / figure, formed with extremely smallest atoms. So, its atoms are so small that they cannot be found with any kind of microscope. The difference between life and death is that soul existed till it is connected with human body. When the soul leaves away the human body, the human body is accepted as dead. Modern science has discovered the process of photography when the soul leaves human body after death. The name of this subtle element is Ectoplasm.  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? Evolution Theory : Philosophy Modern Science tells if Evolution Theory for the cause of creation. There may be many errors in this theory of Darwin, but this hypothesis has been certified and widely used theory to the scientists and common men. According to this view, through evolution plants were created from traditional inanimate elements, from plants different creatures and subsequently more developed creatures and at last human beings were created in this world. In vast “Visnu Puran”, it is said that man was born as creatures of different species or 82 lacs ‘yoni’ before his birth as a man. It is noticeable that as Darwin has said the creation of the human race from a creature like a monkey, the “Visnu Puran” also confirms it.  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? Big Bang Theory : Philosophy Georges Lemaitre. In 1927 the Big Bang hypothesis states that all of the current and past matter in the Universe came into existence at the same time, roughly 13.8 billion years ago. At this time, all matter was compacted into a very small ball with infinite density and intense heat called a Singularity. Suddenly, the Singularity began expanding, and the universe as we know it began. The explanation of the creation of the world has been given by Kapil’s “Shankhya” philosophy and other propounds. Maharishi Kapil, for the first time, explained the World theory with reasoning/logic (Panchabingshati theory). the presence of divine agency is not essential for the creation of the world. The world owes its creation and evolution more to Nature or Prakriti than to God. [Prakriti is the cause of evolution, yet he found that Purusha, the shinning intelligence is really the cause behind the dead and inert Prakriti, and finally concluded that the unintelligent Prakriti, coming in contact with the intelligent Purusha, becomes the cause of evolution of the phenomenal universe]  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? Physical laws and motion The history of Indian physics goes back to Kaṇāda, who asserted that all that is knowable is based on motion, thus giving centrality to analysis in the understanding of the universe. Kaṇāda asserted that there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time, which are continuous, and four kinds of atoms two of which have mass and two that have little mass. Kaṇāda also made a distinction between mind and the self, or consciousness. The conscious subject is separate from material reality but is, nevertheless, able to direct its evolution. He presented laws of motion and also spoke of invariants. He saw the atom to be spherical since it should appear the same from all directions. The atoms combined to form different kinds of molecules that break up under the influence of heat. The molecules come to have different properties based on the influence of various potentials.  What is the relationship between Philosophy and Science in India? Scientific Speculations The Mahābhārata has an account of an embryo divided into one hundred parts each becoming, after maturation in a separate pot, a healthy baby; this is how the Kaurava brothers are born. There is also mention of a conception in one womb transferred to another: this is how Balarāma is a brother to Krishna although he was born to a different mother. This Epic has a major section on battle with a spaceship whose occupants wear airtight suits (Saubha Parva). Are these to be seen as an early form of science fiction?  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Technology is for building up a generation or sharpening the weapon to build society. On the other hand, philosophy helps people to understand the process and impact of technology on society In the ancient period time, the father of Western philosophy, Thales of Miletus (642-546 BCE) had a relationship with technology. He used technology in his mathematical (measuring device, geometric principles) problems. He also used various kinds of technology in his farming.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? In Plato's great creation ‘The Republic’, he gave an example named Allegory of the Cave. In the example, he explores the distinction between appearances and reality. He talked about the danger of illusion. If we relate the example of the allegory of the cave with the modern-day technological illusion, we can say that, he was concerned about the technological effect which will dehumanize people.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Thomas Aquinas was a great philosopher in medieval times. In his Summa Theologica, he talks about morality in technological progress. His moral philosophy is based on natural law theory. From his perspective, the morality of technology can be evaluated by considering how it aligns with natural law principles and promotes the common good. Technology should respect and enhance human power rather than destroy it; it should serve human well-being.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? In the Renaissance time, Francis Bacon emphasized using technology to advance knowledge. He had a positive outlook on technology and its potential benefits for the society. He published a book named ‘New Atlantis’ in 1627. In this book New Atlantis, he explores the relationship between scientific knowledge and technological advancements and their impact on society. Baconian dream of material progress seemed a reality; man's dominion over the natural world had been enormously increased by achievements in the various sciences and the practical application of their methods and discoveries. Bacon also argued that controlled scientific experimentation is essential for understanding nature.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Industrial Revolution: Rene Descartes talked about technological innovation. While he did not directly address technology his philosophical ideas and knowledge had an indirect influence on the development of technological thought. With his systematic doubt and the search for indubitable truth, he encouraged critical thinking, observation, and experimentation. Those were crucial elements in the technological advancements. Philosopher, like Karl Marx, explores the social, ethical, and political implication of technological advancements. Marx was a critique of capitalism. With the relationship between technology, production, and social relations, he aimed to build a socialistic society with more equality.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Modern philosopher Martin Heidegger examined technology and its importance in human life. According to Heidegger, technology has become the dominant mode of revealing truth and shaping our understanding of the world and it will lead to a loss of authenticity and forgetfulness of being. Furthermore, philosophy in technology explores how classical philosophical concepts can be adapted to meet the needs of technology. (For example, Aristotelian phronetic [political wisdom] ethics have been adapted for machine ethics, and the utilitarian and deontic ethical schools have been used in AI.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Ethic [ Philosophy] in Technology The neutrality thesis holds that technology is a neutral instrument that can be put to good or bad use by its users. During the twentieth century, this neutrality thesis met with severe critique, most prominently by Heidegger. Cultural and political approaches Both cultural and political approaches build on the traditional philosophy and ethics of technology of the first half of the twentieth century. Whereas cultural approaches conceive of technology as a cultural phenomenon that influences our perception of the world, political approaches conceive of technology as a political phenomenon, i.e., as a phenomenon that is ruled by and embodies institutional power relations between people. technologies contain a script that influences not only people’s perception of the world but also human behavior, and the idea of the absence of a fundamental distinction between humans and non-humans, including technological artifact.  What is the relationship between philosophy and technology? Political approach: Nevertheless, particularly in relation to digital technologies such as social media, algorithms and more generally Artificial Intelligence (AI), a range of political themes has recently been discussed, such as threats to democracy (from e.g. social media), the power of Big Tech companies, and new forms of exploitation, domination and colonialism that may come with AI. An engineering ethics, the responsibility of engineers is often discussed in relation to code of ethics that articulates specific responsibilities of engineers. Such codes of ethics stress three types of responsibilities of engineers: (1) conducting the profession with integrity and honesty and in a competent way, (2) responsibilities towards employers and clients and (3) responsibility towards the public and society.  Science and Technology in Ancient India It is believed that Indian science and technology began at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan) and continued throughout the country’s history. People developed different systems of agriculture, irrigation, canals and water storage systems, including artificial lakes, by 3,000 BCE. Cotton was cultivated by 5,000–4,000 BCE. The first stone tools in the Indian subcontinent go back more than two million years. They farmed with animal-drawn ploughs in the Indus Civilisation in 2,500 BCE. The people of the Indus-Sarasvati region used weights and measures. Large numbers are used in the Vedas.  Science and Technology in Ancient India Astronomy Astronomy has made great strides. Planetary motion became emphasised and closely monitored. The Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy, but Aryabhatta(499 AD) dealt with the more fundamental issue. His Aryabhattiya is a short text of 121 verses. It includes sections on astronomical definitions, methods for determining the true position of the planets, the movement of the sun and moon, and the calculation of eclipses. The Earth was a sphere that rotated on its axis, and when the earth's shadow fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse, and when the moon's shadow fell on the Earth, it caused a Solar eclipse.[Surya Siddhanta]  Science and Technology in Ancient India Mathematics Harappa's town planning demonstrates that the people were well-versed in measurement and geometry. By the third century AD, mathematics had evolved into a distinct field of study. The Sulvasutras are thought to be the source of Indian mathematics. Apastamba introduced practical geometry involving acute, obtuse, and right angles in the second century BC. This knowledge aided in the construction of fire altars on which the kings sacrificed. The notation system, the decimal system, and the use of zero were the three most important contributions to mathematics. The Arabs brought the notations and numerals to the West. These numerals took the place of Roman numerals. In the second century BC, Zero was discovered in India. Brahmagupta's Brahmasputa Siddhanta was the first book to mention 'zero' as a number; thus, Brahmagupta is known as the man who discovered zero. He explained how to use zero with other numbers.  Science and Technology in Ancient India Medicine The Atharva Veda was the first to mention diseases, cures, and medicines. The diseases mentioned are fever, cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy, and seizures. Diseases are thought to be caused by demons and spirits entering one's body. The remedies suggested were full of magical charms and spells. The period of rational sciences began around 600 BC. Takshila emerged as medical and educational hubs. Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta are two important texts in this field. The fact that their work reached as far as China and Central Asia through translations in various languages demonstrates the significance of their efforts. Charaksamhita mentions medicinal plants and herbs. Around the fourth century AD, surgery became recognized as a distinct field.  Science and Technology in Ancient India This discipline was pioneered by Sushruta. He regarded surgery as "the highest division of the healing arts and the least susceptible to error." He makes reference to 121 surgical instruments. Along with this, he discusses operation methods such as bone setting, cataract removal, and so on. Ancient Indian surgeons were well-versed in plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 different plants. All plant parts, including roots, barks, flowers, and leaves, were used. Diet was emphasised (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita were precursors to the later development of Indian medicine.  Science and Technology in Ancient India Metallurgy Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, alloying, and application of metals. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan provides the first evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent. Wootz steel: Wootz steel, first produced in South India around 300 BCE, was created by carburising iron under controlled conditions. The products made of this Indian steel came to be known as Damascus swords. Wootz steel is primarily iron containing a high proportion of carbon (1.0-1.9%).  Science and Technology in Ancient India Iron Pillar of Delhi: It consists of about six tons of wrought iron. The rust-resistant quality is chiefly due to the presence of phosphorus in the iron and this element, together with iron and oxygen from the air, contributes to the formation of a thin protective passive coating on the surface, which gets reconstituted if damaged by scratching. Lost Wax Technique: It was invented more than 5,000 years ago to create the finest level of detail in sculpting. It is a metal casting technique in which hot metal is poured into a wax model that is 'lost' during the process. Example: The iconic “Dancing Girl” bronze sculpture, in Mohenjo-daro, was created using the lost wax technique.  Science and Technology in Ancient India Engineering and Architecture India has been a pioneer in the field of architecture since the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indus urban system serves as an inspiration for modern cities. Buildings, pillars, cave construction, and chaitya construction were examples of advanced architecture in India during the Mahajanapada and Maurya periods. Temples were advanced in ancient India. The Kailashnath temple, built on a hillside, is a marvel of engineering.  Science and Technology in Ancient India Technology the Neolithic revolution of around 9,000 years ago saw the development of agriculture in parts of the Indus and Ganges valleys, resulting in the need for pots, water management, metal tools, transportation, and so on. The Indus or Harappan civilization (2600-1900 BCE for its urban or Mature phase), which flourished in the northwest of the subcontinent, saw the rapid growth of an efficient agriculture that adapted to very diverse climates and conditions, ranging from the water-rich Indus valley to semi-arid areas of today's Rajasthan.  Science and Technology in Ancient India The Harappans grew wheat, barley, and millets and practiced plough-based agriculture as well as intercropping in some areas. Their wheel-turned pots came in a variety of shapes and sizes, and some were also glazed and painted. Metal smiths extracted copper from ore found in the Aravalli hills, Ambaji (Gujarat), or Oman and alloyed it with tin to create bronze. Mixing various impurities into it, such as nickel or arsenic, hardened it to the point where bronze tools could be used to dress stones.  Significant Science and Technology Discovery in Ancient India Idea of Zero Aryabhata, a mathematician, was the first to create a symbol for zero, and it was through his efforts that mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction began to use the digit zero. The concept of zero and its incorporation into the place-value system also allowed for the writing of numbers of any size using only ten symbols. Decimal System India invented the decimal system, which uses ten symbols to represent all numbers. In this system, each symbol was assigned a positional value as well as an absolute value. This system made the use of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier due to the simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation.  Significant Science and Technology Discovery in Ancient India Numerical Notations India developed a system of different symbols for each number from one to nine as early as 500 BCE. The Arabs, who called it the hind numerals, adopted this notation system. Centuries later, the western world adopted this notation system, dubbed Arabic numerals because it arrived via Arab traders. Binary Numbers The basic language in which computer programs are written is binary numbers. Binary is essentially a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are known as bits and bytes. Pingala, a Vedic scholar, first described the binary number system in his book Chandahsastra, the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic metres and verse).  Significant Science and Technology Discovery in Ancient India Chakravala Method of Algorithms The Chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm for solving indeterminate quadratic equations such as Pell's equation  Significant Science and Technology Discovery in Ancient India Brahmagupta, a well-known mathematician of the 7th century CE, developed this method for obtaining integer solutions. Jayadeva, another mathematician, later generalised this method for a broader range of equations, which was refined further by Bhskara II in his Bijaganita treatise. Ruler Measurements Excavations at Harappan sites have yielded ivory and shell rulers or linear measures. The calibrations, marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, correspond closely with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in South Indian architecture. The dimensions of ancient bricks discovered at excavation sites correspond to the units on these rulers. [7 cm high, 14 cm wide and 28 cm long]  Significant Science and Technology Discovery in Ancient India Plastic Surgery Sushruta Samhita, written by Sushruta in the sixth century BC, is regarded as one of the most comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery. The text discusses various illnesses, plants, preparations, and cures, as well as complex plastic surgery techniques. The most well-known contribution of the Sushruta Samhita to plastic surgery is nose reconstruction, also known as rhinoplasty.  Buddhism Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha [563 BCE - 480 BCE] who had been given the name Siddhartha by his parents Suddhodana, the chief of the Sakya clan and mother was Maya, princess of the Koliya clan He was born in the Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal Tarai. We know this through an inscribed pillar of Asoka. He was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic. In order to find a solution to the misery of-mankind, he left home at the age of 29. Gautama spent six years as a wandering ascetic. From a sage named Alara Kalama he learned the technique of meditation and the teachings of the Upanishads  Buddhism He practiced rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self torture to find the truth. Ultimately abandoning this he went to Uruvela (near, modem Bodh Gaya on the banks of Niranjiina river) and sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi tree) He attained the supreme knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation From there he proceeded to the Deer park at Sarnath near Varanasi and gave his first sermon which is known as 'Dharmachakra Pravartana' (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana. Sari-putra and Anada were the first five disciples of Buddha. He also visited Kapilavastu and converted his foster mother and his son Rahula to his faith  TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA The basic teachings of Buddha are contained Four Noble Truths, and Eight-Fold Path The Four Noble Truths are: i) The world is full of sufferings. ii) All sufferings have a cause: desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of sufferings. iii) The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause. iv) In order to end sufferings, one must know the right path. This path is the Eight-Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga).  TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA The Eight-Fold Path consists of the following principles: i) Finding the right view. It is to understand that the world is filled with sorrow generated by desire. The ending of desire will lead to the liberation of the soul. ii) Right aim. It seeks to avoid the enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love humanity and increase the happiness of others. iii) Right speech, which seeks to emphasize the speaking of truth always. iv) Right action, which is understood to be unselfish action.  TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA V) Right livelihood. It instructs that a man should live by honest means. vi) Right effort. It is the proper way of controlling one's senses so as to prevent bad thoughts. It is through correct mental exercises that one can destroy desire and attachment. vii) Right mindfulness. It is the understanding of the idea that the body is impermanent, and meditation is the means for the removal of worldly evils. viii) Right concentration. The observation of it will lead to peace. Meditation will unravel the truth. Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the shedding of all desires, and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth  TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA Teachings of Buddha put forward a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas: i) Buddha's liberal and democratic approach quickly attracted the people of all sections as there was no need of a priest or middleman to achieve 'nirvana' the ultimate goal of life. ii) Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas and condemn animal sacrifices. He protested the complicated and meaningless ritual.  Development of Buddhism Buddhism appeal to a large section of the population for the following factors:- 1. Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind and a simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism. 2. The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay followers accept Buddhism. 3. The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion 4. The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. Asoka and Kanishka made Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka. 5. The institution of Sangha had helped to organise the spread of Buddhism effectively  Buddhist Councils According to tradition soon after the death of Buddha the first Buddhist Council was held in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi cave near Rajagriha. Mahakassapa presided over the assembly. All the teachings of Buddha were divided into two Pitakas, namely a) Vinaya Pitaka- under the leadership of Upali b) Sutta Pitaka- under the leadership of Ananda The second Council was held at Vaisali in 383 B.C. The monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra had accepted certain rules which were declared as contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the monks of Kausarnbi and Avanti The council ended in a permanent split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas The former upheld the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka while the latter favoured the new rules and their further relaxation  Buddhist Councils The third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Asoka under the chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa. In this Council the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into the third Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka. The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashrnir. This council was a gathering of Hinayanists [who believed in orthodox teaching of Buddha] of North India. Mahayanism [ who made an image of Buddha and worshipped it as God] developed after the fourth Buddhist Council  Hinayana and the Mahayana In Hinayana Buddhism the immediate goal is achieving Nirvana, individual salvation, where each person has to work out his/her own destiny. Whereas for the Mahayana Buddhists immediate goal is achieving bodhisattva A bodhisattva is an individual who has gained spiritual enlightenment but puts off his own final state of Nirvana in order to assist all sentiment beings (human, animals and insects) to attain salvation. Hinayana sees suffering as real while Mahayana tradition consider is it as an illusion. In the Hinayana tradition main thrust is on the Buddha's teachings, where as deification of the Buddha and worship of deities are considered integral part of the Mahayana tradition.  Hinayana and the Mahayana Although both the schools believe in the basic philosophy of Buddhism but the differences that they have mainly are in terms of interpretation of the Buddhist philosophy and in its practices. Hinayana Buddhism became popular in Sri Lanka, Burma and the countries of South-East Asia, where as Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant sect in India, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan. The Vajrayana constitute last major stage in the development of Buddhism. The Vajrayana, meaning both thunderbolt and diamond, is predominantly yogic and magical in character. It believes in yogic exercises for spiritual evolution and the concept of an enlightened Guru (teacher) in transmission of spiritual power. Vajrayana developed in parts of northern India and Tibet.  What is Buddhist Philosophy It is a nontheistic philosophy that focuses on an individual’s struggle in life and proposes that instead of looking for answers around or beyond us, one should look within to find truth and enlightenment. Buddhism has all along recognized a distinction between relative and transcendental philosophy, between theories concerning the analysis of phenomena and theories concerning the ultimate nature of things. The first covers much of the ground which in Europe has become the Special field Of the particular sciences, such as astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology, while the latter is more in accord with the Occidental delimitations of philosophy, or metaphysics proper.  What is Buddhist Philosophy Buddhist tradition, wisdom (prajñā ) played a central role in Buddhist practice. Wisdom involved seeing through appearances of things and understanding them correctly. Buddhist philosophers, the Middle Way is more an intellectual discipline than a discipline of desire, but it is equally fundamental to their practice: their philosophical practice charts a Middle Way between the extremes of affirmation (in which things are treated as permanent entities) and negation (in which they are treated as utterly non-existent).  What is Buddhist Philosophy THE THREE UNIVERSAL TRUTHS 1. Nothing is lost in the universe 2. Everything Changes 3. The Law of Cause and Effect In Buddhism, the law of karma, says "For every event that occurs, there will follow another event whose existence was caused by the first, and this second event will be pleasant or unpleasant according to its cause was skillful or unskillful." Therefore, the law of Karma teaches that the responsibility for unskillful actions is borne by the person who commits them.  Fundamental Principle of Buddhist Philosophy 1. Causation 2. Indeterminism of the Differentiated 3. Reciprocal Identification 4. True Reality 5. Totality 6. Perfect Freedom  Fundamental Principle of Buddhist Philosophy Causation According to Buddhism, human beings and all living things are self-created or self-creating. The universe is not homocentric, it is a co-creation of all beings. It does not believe that all things came from one cause, but holds that everything is inevitably created out of more than two causes. Time series- past-present-future.  Fundamental Principle of Buddhist Philosophy Indeterminism of the Differentiated The theory is generally said to be that of ‘uncertainty relation’. According to this the nature of things or substances can in no way be determined by reason, experiment or science.[ modern physicist] According to Buddhism, all living beings have assumed the present life as the result of self-creation and are, even at present, while creating themselves. Birth and death are not the predestined fate of a living being but a corollary of action. Karma.  Fundamental Principle of Buddhist Philosophy Reciprocal Identification Mahayana teaches that one should put one own idea aside for a moment and identify one own position with that of the other party, thus mutually synthesizing the opposed positions. As copper and zinc are mixed together to form one alloy, bronze. True Reality To seek first the innermost essence among the outward appearance of all things or to seek an unchanging fact among many changing things. People try to distinguish the unknowable from the knowable, the real from the apparent, or the thing in itself from things for us. The effort, too, will end in failure for that what they select as real or the thing in itself is utterly beyond human knowledge.  Fundamental Principle of Buddhist Philosophy Totality No one being will exist by itself and for itself, but the whole world will move and act in unison as if the whole were under general organization. Such an ideal world is called the world one and true. Perfect Freedom Just prior to death, Buddha spoke to his disciples ‘ do not wail saying ‘ our teacher has passed away, and we have no one to follow’, what I have taught, the Dharma (ideal) with the Vinaya(disciplinary) rules, will be your teacher after my departure, if you adhere to them and practice them uninterruptedly, it is not the same as if my Dharma body [ Teaching of him] remained here forever.  What is the place of Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology in Ancient India? Einstein himself said that “If there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs it would be Buddhism”. Buddha knew more than two millennia in the past what scientists would only discover more than two millennia in the future. Kurt F. Leidecker, President Buddhist Center of America, and others very aptly observe in "Buddhism and Science", " Perhaps one reason (for progress of science) is that Buddhist thinking has always enjoyed the greatest freedom untrammelled by dogmatism and authority of any kind, not even that of Buddha himself. We have his words in the Kalama Sutta which should be given in the hands of any who write and pronounce judgment on Buddhism."  What is the place of Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology in Ancient India? Buddhism itself was presented as an agnostic, superstition-free moral ideal: the universe was governed by a rule of law (dharma), which for Westerners suggested a “natural law” that resembled the scientific view of order more than the action of divine will. Buddhism is a religion which recognizes no other revelation except the truth that can be proved by science. J. Robert Oppenheimer, the so-called “father of the atomic bomb” and a student of Eastern thought, saw Buddhism as foreshadowing the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: we cannot know both the position and speed of a particle, such as a photon or an electron, with perfect accuracy, the more we nail down the particle's position, the less we know about its speed and vice  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology In the 1950s and 1960s, Buddhist influence morphed and grew, as Buddhism came to be used to lend support to the new field of humanistic psychology and the self- realization movement by providing them with meditation techniques, exercises, and “enlightenment” narratives selectively borrowed from Buddhist original sources. Beginning in the 1970s, the focus shifted to Buddhism’s apparent concurrence with environmentalism, cognitive psychology, and most recently, neuroscience.  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology The age of progress of science in India was the age of glory of Buddhism. Acharya Charak was the 'rajvaidya' in the court of Buddhist emperor, Kanishka, of first century A.D. Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna was also their contemporary. He was also famous physician. The contribution of Charak to "Charak Samhita" is as important as Nagarjuna's contribution to "Sushrut Samhita". Whatever knowledge of ayurveda was being spread through the oral traditional method of Guru sishya teaching was revised and reduced to writing in the times of Buddhist rulers  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology 19th century, numerous modern figures have argued that Buddhism is rational and uniquely compatible with science. Some have even argued that Buddhism is "scientific" (a kind of "science of the mind" or an "inner science") Buddhist doctrines such as impermanence [mark of existence]and emptiness have been compared to the scientific understanding of the natural world. Buddhist view of emptiness (the lack of any independent and fixed essence) was consistent with the insights of modern quantum physics  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology Buddhism & Neuroscience New theories in neuroscience suggest consciousness is an intrinsic property of everything, just like gravity Steve Silberman’s groundbreaking book, Neurotribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity, is changing the way we think about cognitive differences.  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology Physics in Buddhism Indian Buddhist philosophers taught that everything in the universe is made up of atoms. These atoms are made of energy, and they’re in constant motion. They come together to form larger objects but can also be dissolved into their constituent parts. Like Buddhists, physicists also believe that atoms are made of energy. Atoms are in constant motion. They vibrate, rotate, and move around. They also interact with other particles to form molecules.  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology Theory of evolution In the Agganna Sutta, a Buddhist scripture, the Buddha describes how human beings have evolved over time, going through the never-ending cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. There is also no fundamental difference between humans and animals in Buddhism. All beings are equal and have the same right to live. This is the belief that all life on Earth developed over time, through the process of natural selection, these ancestors have evolved into the myriad of different species that we see today. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is one of the most well-known and widely accepted scientific theories.  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology Herschel’s nebular hypothesis Herschel believed to be “diffused matter hastening to a world birth” Modern astronomy was but verifying the more ancient Buddhistic dogma of a plurality of worlds, of the co-existence of thousands of chiliocosmoi [A collection of many worlds] inhabited by multitudes of living beings.  Buddhist Philosophy in Science and Technology Gunpowder, celebrated as one of “China’s Four Great Inventions”, is another case in point. Its invention has long been associated with Daoist alchemy, but recent studies have revealed that it was a Buddhist monk from Sri Lanka who laid the groundwork for this great invention. This Sri Lankan monk was well-versed in pharmacy and alchemy; and led a team to Mount Wutai in search of saltpeter—the essential ingredient in the making of gunpowder. The era of firearms thus came about as a result of humans’ longing for immortality.