Indian Classical Literature PDF

Department of Distance and Continuing Education University of Delhi nwjLFk ,oa lrr~ f'k{kk foHkkx fnYyh fo'ofo|ky; B.A. (Hons.) English - (DSC-3) B.A. (Programme) - Major Paper-I : DSC-1(A/B) Semester - I Course Credits - 4 INDIAN CLASSICAL LITERATURE As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020 Indian Classical Literature Editorial Board Dr. Neeta Gupta, Dr. Seema Suri Nalini Prabhakar Content Writers Usha Anand, Ratika Anand, Bharat Choudhary, Dr. Sundari Siddartha, Shriya Pandey Academic Coordinator Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN: 978-93-95774-70-3 Ist edition: 2022 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education under the aegis of Campus of Open Learning / School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) The present study material is the edited version of an earlier study material, from the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) and Annual Mode. However, Unit-I(c) and part of Unit-III has been written afresh. Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by the Statutory Body, DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions can be sent to the email- [email protected] © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Table of Contents Title Prepared by Edited by Page Unit-I: Vyasa, Selections from The Mahabharata (a) ‘The Dicing’ And ‘Sequel to Dicing’ Usha Anand Dr. Neeta Gupta 01 (b) The Temptation of Karna Ratika Anand Nalini Prabhakar 26 (c) Krishna’s Peace Proposal Bharat Choudhary Dr. Neeta Gupta 39 Unit-II: Kalidasa, Abhijnanasakuntalam Dr. Sundari Siddartha Dr. Seema Suri 59 Unit-III: Ilango Adigal “The Book of Vanci”, Shriya Pandey Nalini Prabhakar 85 Silappadhikaram © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Unit-I(a) THE MAHABHARATA: ‘THE DICING’ AND ‘SEQUEL TO DICING’ Usha Anand STRUCTURE 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.2.1 Prescribed Sections of the Mahabharata 1.2.2 The Scope 1.2.3 Evolution of the Mahabharata 1.2.4 Narrative Technique 1.2.5 How do Stories Add Meaning to a Narrative? 1.2.6 The Organic Unity of the Mahabharata 1.2.7 Check Your Progress 1.2.8 The Moral Framework of the Mahabharata 1.2.8.1 Dharma 1.2.8.2 Destiny 1.2.8.3 Check Your Progress 1.3 The Dicing: A Detailed Study 1.3.1 The Game of Dice in the Assembly Hall 1.3.2 The Status of Women 1.3.3 Check Your Progress 1.4 Sequel to Dicing 1.4.1 The Scheming Duryodhan Plans a Sequel 1.4.2 The Second Game of Dice 1.4.3 Check Your Progress 1.5 The Game of Dice in Relation to the Plot 1.5.1 Check Your Progress 1.6 Summing Up 1.7 Suggested Readings 1|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The main objectives of this study material are to: - i) enable the student to get an overview of the general narrative of the Mahabharata and an idea of how to go about interpreting all the complex themes, imagery, incidents, philosophical concepts of destiny, the Vedic point of view, dharma etc. in the prescribed text. ii) specifically enable him/her to interpret episodes and characters not just literally but from a symbolic and moral point of view. iii) see the link between the individual’s interests and those of the larger world around him/her, introduce him to the concept of the microcosm and the macrocosm. iv) do a detailed analysis of the episode of the game of dice, a pivotal episode in the narrative of the Mahabharata, and to see how it is crucial to the entire story of the epic. v) introduce students to modern interpretations of major pivotal characters of the Mahabharata as representing human traits as well as gender-oriented roles. In other words, to link the epic with modern life. 1.2 INTRODUCTION 1.2.1 Prescribed Sections of the Mahabharata A look at the syllabus shows that you have to closely examine three excerpts from the epic and this part of the study material takes up ‘The Dicing’ and ‘The Sequel to Dicing’ from Book 2, Sabha Parva Section XLVI-LXXII for a detailed study. It is an extract from K.M. Ganguli’s translation, one of the most widely accepted English renderings of the complete epic. When you read this section, you are getting a glimpse into the real world of the Mahabharata as was probably intended by the composer Vyasa and subsequent bards who recited the epic in the oral tradition. It has all the human drama, action, insight into human behaviour, realpolitik, intrigue, cunning, that make this Indian epic such a favourite with all those people who have anything to do with art forms like literature, dance, drama, and also culture. Moreover, these two sections are vital to the plot of the epic and have tremendous bearing on both, the causal chain of events in the epic, and the behaviour of the protagonists. 2|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Wronged Draupadi seeks revenge and Bhim’s anger motivates him to perform gory deeds of murder and killing, several years after this incident. Draupadi is a woman who through her intelligence combined with a remarkable sense of integrity raises a legal issue which becomes a moral dilemma for those present at the sabha. Whether Yudhishtira, a man who has already lost himself in the game of dice, had the power to stake his wife, is a question which none present in the assembly can answer satisfactorily. And, till today, the dilemma seems unresolved. Draupadi lives by the social norms and conventions of her times. But when she is wronged, she protests even though her protests, her intelligence, her moral integrity are of no avail in her hour of crisis. In the present times, our sense of gender- awareness helps us to sympathize with Draupadi far more than her contemporaries might have sympathized with her. The feminist point of view however always conflicts with the male point of view. With some of these guidelines before you, please read on. 1.2.2 The Scope The Mahabharata is usually accepted as an encyclopaedia of ancient Indian culture and civilization, next in importance only to the Vedas, and is often referred to as the fifth Veda. Although the central narrative of the epic is the struggle for power between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, the content of the poem is vast and varied. Its structure is very intricate. Its content has passages of philosophical poetry, poetry of the metaphysical imagination, and its appeal ranges from the purely literal to the highly symbolic and spiritual. There is the physical Kurukshetra and there is the Kurukshetra of the mind. In certain passages of great depth, it speaks of the subtle form of the soul and sets forth in detail, the many paths that are open for soul experience. Vyasa who is considered the composer of the Mahabharata unravels the mystery of the creation, of the Veda, which is wisdom itself, of Yoga with all its metaphysical background of wealth, Desire and Duty. He includes the wisdom of various disciplines or sciences like Ayurveda, Dhanurveda or the science of the bow, Sthapatyaveda or the science of architecture and engineering, and many others. That the Mahabharata was intended as a grand treatise on life is indicated when Vyasa tells Brahma in the Mahabharata itself: “O divine Brahma, by me a poem hath been composed which is greatly respected. The mystery of the Veda, and what other subjects have been explained by me; the various rituals of the Upanishads with the Angas; formed by me and named after the 3|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) three divisions of time, past, present, and future; the determination of the nature of decay, fear, disease, existence, and non-existence, a description of creeds and of the various modes of life; rule for the four castes, and the import of all the Puranas; an account of asceticism and of the duties of a religious student; the dimensions of the sun and moon, the planets, constellations, and stars, together with the duration of the four ages; the Rik, Sama and Yajur Vedas; also the Adhyatma; the sciences called Nyaya, Orthœphy and Treatment of diseases; charity and Pasupatadharma; birth celestial and human, for particular purposes; also a description of places of pilgrimage and other holy places of rivers, mountains,, forests, the ocean, of heavenly cities and the kalpas; the art of war; the different kinds of nations and languages: the nature of the manners of the people; and the all-pervading spirit;--all these have been represented. But, after all, no writer of this work is to be found on earth.” Brahma replies to Vyasa and pays his own tribute to the encyclopaedic epic, saying: “I esteem thee for thy knowledge of divine mysteries, before the whole body of celebrated Munis distinguished for the sanctity of their lives. I know thou hast revealed the divine word, even from its first utterance, in the language of truth. Thou hast called thy present work a poem, wherefore it shall be a poem. There shall be no poets whose works may equal the descriptions of this poem, even, as the three other modes called Asrama are ever unequal in merit to the domestic Asrama. Let Ganesa be thought of, O Muni, for the purpose of writing the poem.” (The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Section I). 1.2.3 Evolution of the Mahabharata You are aware that the Mahabharata is an epic– a ‘Mahakavya’. But as students of literature, we must remember that this epic began as an itihasa, a primarily historical work. Only, the method of its transmission was oral. It was passed on from generation to generation. Bards, minstrels, rhapsodists are all people associated with the tradition of oral transmission in times when the written form was rare and difficult to prepare or procure. An eminent scholar Dandekar, talking about the Mahabharata says: “It appears to me that the historical basis of the Mahabharata is quite slender, diffuse and not easily identifiable. A commonplace family feud is subjected to epic magnification with all its hyperboles, miracles, mystification, symbolization, idealization and universalisation. the Mahabharata, I submit, is essentially an epic poem- with emphasis on both the words ‘epic’ and ‘poem’- and not a historical document in the 4|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature restricted sense of the term. So, in a sense, it is an epic born out of an ‘itihasa’” (Dandekar, p.16). Now, when we look at it as an epic poem, we need to understand its evolution. In order to come to terms with the vastness of the epic we would do well to remember that the Mahabharata is over eight times the combined length of the western epics of classical literature, the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is, in its present form perceived as a blend of history and mythology and constitutes an outstanding record of the collective conscious, unconscious and sub-conscious of man. However, it is generally accepted among scholars that it evolved over three stages of composition and compilation. An eminent scholar, Professor U.K. Gokak tells us that “Jaya” was the name given to Vyasa’s itihasa. The text composed by Vyasa was named Jaya referring to the triumph of good, the victory of the Pandavas’ Dandekar, p. 2). This original composition had about eight thousand stanzas and was recited by Vyasa to his son Suka. From the point of view of narrative technique, providing a listener is a literary device of providing an audience or listener for the narrator. It also gives plausibility to a poetic composition being recited in keeping with the prevalent oral tradition. Vyasa the sage composer also had a disciple called Vaishampayana. This disciple was given the task of expanding the epic Jaya into the Bharata containing many more sections, legendary stories and treatises. These additions led to the Bharata being considered an Itihasa Purana, a step ahead of the itihas Jaya. Jaya was recited to Suka. Bharata was recited by Vaishampayana to Janmejaya and others at a Yagya at Takshashila for snake sacrifice to avenge the killing of Parikshit by snakebite. At this point it is important to remember that this audience is the lineage of Arjuna, one of the Pandavas. Arjuna’s son was Abhimanyu; Abhimanyu’s son was Parikshit and Parikshit’s son was Janmejaya who wanted to avenge his father’s death by killing all the nagas but was persuaded not to do so. So, while the original Jaya, was only 8000 stanzas, the poem recited to Janmejaya was Bharata, a poem of 24,000 stanzas. Bharata tells about the glory of Janmejaya’s ancestors. It is also called the Bharatsamhita. In the language of scholarship, a new, revised version of a text is called a recension. So, the Bharata is the second recension of the primary epic Jaya. Scholars believe that this second recension, like Jaya, was pro-Pandava and pro-Krishna in theme and treatment. Among the listeners present at the recitation of the Bharata was a bard Romaharshana. He recited a further expanded third recension of the story to his son Ugrasravas. This third 5|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) verse version called the Mahabharata was recited at the twelve-year sattra in the Naimisa Forest in the presence of several sages. The existence of several recensions is typical of the oral epic. The bard or singer improvised with the help of formulae and patterns of expression and themes while rhapsodists recited songs learnt by heart. 1.2.4 Narrative Technique The evolution of the Mahabharata described in the preceding segment has a direct bearing on the narrative technique of this epic. Considering the immensity of its inclusive range, the Mahabharata is considered a Book of Books. The vastness of its time frame which includes several generations justifies the many narrators of the poem. You may note that in a sense, it begins with the end. Descendants of the Pandavas, having been persuaded not to perform the Yagya for mass killing of serpents wish to hear about the glory of their ancestors. the Mahabharata is a highly enhanced narrative of the glory of the entire clan, the descendants of Shantanu and Satyavati. The two rival factions, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, stand for two polarized aspects of the moral perception of life, material and spiritual. In the process of expressing this expansive world view, the epic has to resort to multiple narrators and narrative methods. The most obvious aspect to be noted is that the final narrator Ugrasravas refers every now and then to the person whose recitation he depends upon. “Vaishampayana said” is his way of telling the listeners that his narrative is an old narrative of history, folklore, mythology that has come down to him through generations. Having listeners ask questions is a method of giving the narrator/ rhapsodist a chance to bring in more content, philosophical, spiritual or material. More stories, more characters, a greater range of material is thus included in the recitation. This is often described by critics as the practice of having stories within stories and yet more stories. There are plots and sub-plots and sub-sub-plots. At this point it is pertinent to recall the names of the known narrators of the epic narrative. There is Vyasa–the original composer and narrator for whom Ganesha was the scribe. The next significant narrator was Vaishampayana–who narrated Vyasa’s tale to Janmejaya, the great-grandson of the Pandava, Arjuna. This narrative was overheard by a Santi or bard called Romaharshana who passed it on to his son Ugrasravas–who narrated it to Shaunaka and other sages of the Naimisha forest. 6|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Coming to the narrators within the narrative itself, we have the very interesting role of Sanjaya who is endowed with the divine gift of divya drishti which enables him to describe, in great detail, the action taking place on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. He describes the war to the blind Dhritarashtra and indirectly to us too as modern day readers/listeners. Within the framework of lineage and caste, Sanjaya himself was a bard. The minstrels who narrated the epic were known as ‘sutas’. ‘Sutas’ were the illegitimate offspring of Kshatriya royalty. For instance, Karna and Vidura are intelligent people, sons of royalty, but are called Sutas. ‘Karna is a major character in the epic. He is the son of Kunti and the Sun god but, abandoned by Kunti, is raised by a charioteer. Vidura, the most dispassionate royal advisor to the Kauravas, half-brother of Dhritarashtra, is the son of a royal maid and Vyasa. Both these characters are examples of ‘Sutas’. 1.2.5 How do Stories Add Meaning to a Narrative? A popular yet serious narrative like the Mahabharata necessarily contains abstract ideas. Stories enable a narrator to convey those abstract ideas in situational terms so that in the event of an oral recitation they are understood immediately and instantly. Critics who try to explain the power of stories say that like fiction or poetry, stories enable us to experience feelings, thoughts, emotions and images which may lie dormant in our subconscious mind. In a sense, stories reflect a part of our inner selves, helping us to understand and heal ourselves. Complex and difficult experiences of life can be conveyed through stories. So can a great deal of wisdom. To understand the power of a rich yet simple story, let us briefly recall the story of the Yaksha in the Mahabharata. Yaksha is the Lord of a lake. Nakula, the youngest Pandava is out in the forest to hunt a deer when he suddenly feels very thirsty. Approaching the lake, he hears a mysterious voice say that he can only drink water from the lake after answering the Yaksha’s questions. However, seeing no one around, Nakula using his cupped hands drinks water from the lake but immediately drops down dead. One by one all the brothers come to the lake, looking for the one who has gone before. The last one to reach is Yudhishtira who is taken aback to find his four brothers lying dead on the ground. Like his brothers before him, Yudhishtira is also addressed by the Yaksha but unlike his brothers, immediately lets go of the water. Appearing before Yudhishtira, the Yaksha asks him a number of questions which Yudhishtira answers very wisely. The questions encompass the Vedas, society, the nature of the world, philosophy, death; almost anything under the Sun. Impressed with Yudhishtira’s 7|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) answers, the Yaksha reveals his true identity. He is Yama, also known as Dharma, Yudhishtira’s father. As a reward, all four brothers of Yudhishtira are restored to life. This brief recapitulation of a story is intended only to show you how a vast range of wisdom can be effectively conveyed and encompassed through a story of a few pages. 1.2.6 The Organic Unity of the Mahabharata There has been endless comment on the diversity of the Mahabharata. There are no limitations of time, place or action but it has also been conceived as a tree which grows out of a seed and grows with its roots spreading underground and its branches spreading in every direction. In his commentary on the Mahabharata, Vidya Niwas Misra gives a detailed analogy: “The conceptualization as a tree signifies one thing, namely, that all material within the epic is organically related and is one totality. Nothing is grafted from outside. The main trunk of the story lends itself to branch out into sub-stories. The seed of poetic structure remains one. The trunk is one, the major branches are defined and well developed, only they continue to leaf out and blossom. When the fruit forms, the tree achieves its final shape- the tree of the Mahabharata. Whatever additions or deletions take place, they happen before fruition” (Dandekar, p. 20). 1.2.7 Check Your Progress 1. List the three stages of the evolution of the Mahabharata 2. Would it be correct to say that the Mahabharata is a record of a historical event? 3. List the various narrators of the Mahabharata in the correct order 4. What is the purpose of having stories within stories in the epic? 1.2.8 The Moral Framework of the Mahabharata 1.2.8.1 Dharma David Crystal in the Cambridge Paperback Encyclopedia describes dharma as, “In Hinduism, the universal law that applies to the Universe, human society, and the individual is both a general code of ethics applicable to all, and a moral law specific to an individual’s station in life.” 8|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Yudhishtira, the protagonist of the Mahabharata is the son of Dharma and himself Dharma incarnate. He is constantly faced with dilemmas but always applies the test of dharma to his actions. Critics have pointed out that this epic is not essentially about courage, valour or physical prowess but about spiritual strength, flexibility and the ability to face life courageously. Yudhishtira’s judgment and commitment to Dharma are tested time and again but he always abides by Dharma. The Yaksha of the lake puts him through a trial but in both thought and action, he is able to satisfy the embodiment of Dharma: his answers to the Yaksha are steeped in acceptance of the universal law and his choice of his youngest step brother, Sahdev, Madri’s son, as the one to be brought back to life, reveal his commitment to the principles of Dharma. So does his willingness to bear the consequences of his choice, even if it is an unfairly inflicted and unfairly won game of dice. The episode of Yudhishtira standing at the gates of heaven in his earthly body with a dog in tow is known to all. His refusal to enter without the dog is an act of dharma. He refuses to abandon his companion, thus abiding by Dharma. Coming back to the “universal law” of Crystal’s definition, the Mahabharata shows us that the truth of an individual, of a society, of a community or of a nation has to be in consonance with cosmic and universal truth. It cannot be merely theorized. Dharma is put to test in everyday life, and there is no absolute dharma. The dharma of crisis situations is different from the dharma of everyday life. If an action contributes to universal good, it conforms to dharma even if it does not conform to societal norms. When choices are to be made between conflicting dharmas, a great deal of thought, concentration and judgment have to be exercised. 1.2.8.2 Destiny The Mahabharata depicts the suffering of the righteous man. On the face of it the epic appears to believe that the irreversible destiny of man is to suffer But, very perceptively the scholar Vidya Niwas Misra points out that there is a notion of the destined, but only to dramatize human weakness. One who is not willing to face suffering as a consequence of his own action makes a scapegoat of destiny. When suffering is unbearable, blaming fate is a big help. When Draupadi comes to Kunti for blessings, Kunti says: “Daughter, give birth to sons with good fate and stars. Do not give birth to the ones who are merely brave and learned. My sons are both brave and learned, but not fortunate. They are wandering in the jungles helplessly.” This admonition does not mean that Kunti wants cowards and dullards as her grandsons. It only points to her unbearable anguish at the fate her sons have met. Won’t they 9|Pa g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) ever know peace and happiness, she wonders! This instance is not a validation of destiny. It is only an expression of anguish. If destiny does take its course in the Mahabharata, it is due to some karmic deed of one’s own. If a curse is inflicted, that curse is self-earned by some slip or folly. Acting judiciously brings peace of mind and makes suffering bearable. A conscientious person introspects to see if he has made compromises or whether he has bowed to someone who is unjust, for personal promotion. He experiences contentment even if he gets a little without causing suffering to others, without aligning with villains or giving up the path of virtue. In the Mahabharata, Yudhishtira’s willingness to accept just five villages for himself and his Pandava brothers is a case in point. But his efforts to avoid a full-fledged conflict with the Kauravas prove futile as Duryodhana is unwilling to give them even a needle point of land. The Mahabharata teaches us that the vices of envy, lust, anger, greed, pride and attachment are quick to propagate but produce impermanent results. Godly virtues, though slow to grow, are lasting. In the ultimate analysis, the path to Moksha lies through fortitude and forbearance. 1.2.8.3 Check Your Progress 1. Briefly explain the concept of Dharma as explored in the Mahabharata. Is it absolute or does it vary according to one’s situation in life? 2. Would you agree with the view that destiny is directly linked to the consequences of one’s actions? 3. If one is destined to suffer how can he/she make that suffering bearable? 1.3 THE DICING’: A DETAILED STUDY 1.3.1 The Game of Dice in the Assembly Hall This is one of the sections of the epic listed for detailed study. As such you should be able to explain any lines or episodes even if you see them in isolation. For this, we need to keep some things in mind. Recall what was mentioned in the Introduction. Remember that what we are reading is Ugrasravas’s rendering of the Mahabharata. That is why you often see, 10 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature “Vaishampayana again said—” Ugrasravas is quoting Vaishampayana who is repeating what Yudhishtira or Draupadi or Duryodhana or Dhritarashtra or Vidur or any of the other characters said in the assembly. To get the reference of the narrators of the three recensions of the Mahabharata right, please refer to section 2.3 of the ‘Introduction’ to this study material. Coming to the book itself, let us place it in sequential perspective. Having set up a capital in a new city at Khandavprastha which they render into Indraprastha as opposed to Hastinapur over which the Kauravas preside, Yudhishtira establishes suzerainty over a very large number of barons (rulers) in north India. He then seeks to legitimize his authenticity by perfoming a Rajsuya Yagya to which all the barons of various Kingdoms are invited and pay tribute in acknowledgement of Yudhistiras supremacy. The only two states/rulers from whom tribute is not received are king Dhrupada (father of Draupadi, and an ally, by marriage, of the Pandavas) and Krishna who had helped the Pandavas to slay Sisupala, the powerful king who had subdued 86 out 101 barons of Aryan lineage in Northern India of those times, i.e. in the second millenium B.C. When the Pandavas hold such an important ceremony as a Rajsuya Yagya it is natural that their Kaurava cousins from Hastinapur are also invited. However, the visit leaves the Kauravas jealous at the sheer wealth amassed and the splendour of the new capital, its palace and hall. After all, Dhritrashtra had sent them away to seek a new life from scratch in Khandavaprastha. They had done well and with the help of Maya, a demon who was also an architect, set up a splendid capital. It is after this visit that Duryodhana descends into a sulk and when asked, reveals to Sakuni, his maternal uncle, the cause of his unhappiness. As it is revealed that jealousy over the wealth and property of his Pandava cousins is the cause of Duryodhana’s unhappiness, the cunning, scheming Sakuni devises the ploy of inviting them to a game of dice to defraud them of their wealth. The plan is conveyed to Dhritrashtra who has to give permission for the game of dice to be held in the assembly hall in the presence of the family elders and other important people. He is initially hesitant but is subsequently prevailed upon to dispatch Vidura with the invitation. Many questions have been asked about why Yudhistira accepted, but the answer seems to be that he was simply following a code of conduct or a social convention which dictated that a game of dice could not be declined. Van Buitenen in his introduction to the Mahabharata indicates that dicing is a part of the rajasuya rituals when he says “Yudhishtira had not so far been at all fond of gambling—we have seen quite a bit of him now—and can hardly be regarded as under a private compulsion to rise to any game”. Nevertheless, he submits, though grudgingly: “Once challenged, I cannot refuse.” Once we accept the dicing as an integral part of rajasuya, in the Assembly Hall, as well as the ritual manuals, Yudhishtira is not at all the statue with the clay feet, the paragon of rectitude with the sudden tragic flaw. The text itself 11 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) does not condemn Yudhishtira for his gaming. Of course, if the gambling had been outside Yudhishtira’s universe of law, the authors could easily have dropped the game from their version of the rajasuya, but in a way this would have gone against the spirit of the Mahabharata as a whole. It has often been remarked that the epic is a series of precisely stated problems imprecisely and therefore inconclusively resolved, with every resolution raising a new problem, until the very end, when the question remains: whose is heaven, and whose is hell? The point counterpoint is typical of the assembly hall as well: suzerainty achieved, and then gambled away. Rather than dropping the Dicing or treating it as perfunctorily as do the ritual manuals, the authors have seized upon the dicing rite of the vedic ceremony as a ritually legitimate, even prescribed, way of swinging the doubt from Yudhishtiras apparently unassailable position to the claims of the Kauravas. With a masterly stroke of composition, the dead letter of the Vedic game is dramatically revived. Meanwhile, Yudhishtra remains the king Dharma he had not been too happy before about. For this ambition to become samrat, he is now prepared to go the bitter end. And bitter it is. After an epical losing streak he finds himself obliged to stake his brothers, himself, and Draupadi—obliged, it seems, by the rules of the game, which unfortunately are never explained. What we do gather, however, is that two parties, rather than two individuals play, for Duryodhana’s uncle Sakuni may play for him; it is Duryodhana who pays in the stake. The two parties pay in the first stake in the same amount. The loser adds to his stake while the winner’s presumably remains the same. It is not clear whether the entire stake stays in the game or the winner pockets the loser’s last stake after each play. Never stated but implicit is this game’s rule that it will go through twenty plays which are presented as two phases of ten each. In the first ten plays Yudhishtira forfeits most of his possessions, and after the tenth Vidura, the benevolent uncle of the Pandavas makes an impassioned plea that the game be stopped. Vidura urges not Yudhishtira but Duryodhana’s father to stop it and villifies Duryodhana for persisting in it. This would make no sense if Vidura considered Yudhishtira a free agent; it makes excellent sense if Yudhishtira is bound by the rules of his own Rajasuya and must rise to the challenge. The game is carried on for another session of ten plays. Yudhishtra first loses untold millions in the eleventh play, in the twelfth all his cattle, in the thirteenth all his land, in the fourteenth the sons of Draupadi by the five Pandavas, in the fifteenth Nakula, in the sixteenth Sahadeva, in the seventeenth Bhima, in the eighteenth Arjuna, in the nineteenth himself. At the twentieth play the final one of the game, Yudhishtira stakes Draupadi. The audience 12 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature groans and protests but does nothing to stop the play; evidently the game is to be a complete one, with a total winner and a total loser. But our authors, masters of doubt, have already planted a doubt. Draupadi is lost; she is subjected to indignities that shout for vengeance, she is disrobed but the power of her virtue replaces her sari; she also poses the ultimate riddle. Had Yudhishtira staked and lost himself, she asks, before he staked me? If so, he had lost his freedom and, as a slave of the Kauravas, no longer owned her to stake. Just then there begin many bad omens that portend a grim future for the Kauravas. “Vaisampayana continued,--"Just then, a jackal began to cry loudly in the homa- chamber of king Dhritarashtra's palace. And, O king, unto the jackal that howled so, the asses began to bray responsively. And terrible birds also, from all sides, began to answer with their cries. And Vidura conversant with everything and the daughter of Suvala, both understood the meaning of those terrible sounds. And Bhishma and Drona and the learned Gautama loudly cried,--Swashti! Swashti! Then Gandhari and the learned Vidura beholding that frightful omen, represented everything, in great affliction, unto the king. When Dhritrashtra listens to the dreadful omens and is warned by Gandhari and Vidur, he becomes cautious. He realizes now that matters have gone too far and tries to retrieve the situation thus: “And the king (Dhritarashtra) thereupon said,-- 'Thou wicked-minded Duryodhana, thou wretch, destruction hath already overtaken thee when thou insultest in language such as this the wife of these bulls among the Kurus, especially their wedded wife Draupadi. And having spoken those words, the wise Dhritarashtra endued with knowledge, reflecting with the aid of his wisdom and desirous of saving his relatives and friends from destruction, began to console Krishna, the princess of Panchala, and addressing her, the monarch said,--'Ask of me any boon, O princess of Panchala, that thou desirest, Chaste and devoted to virtue, thou art the first of all my daughters-in-law.” (Sabha Parva, Book II Section LXXII). With the boons given to her Draupadi is able to free the five Pandavas from slavery and get back their lost wealth and kingdom. So, the Pandavas depart, free and still rich men. 1.3.2 The Status of Women Having tried to understand the socio-cultural context of dicing, we are still left puzzled by Draupadi’s plight in this episode. To understand how she is affected by Yudhishtira’s losing her, we need to take a look at the status of women in Aryan society of these times. The 13 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) Aryans who settled in North India after arriving there from Central Asia took the darker skinned natives captive and made them their slaves. In the Atharvaveda, dasi is the term used to describe alien domestic help. There is reference to the black dasi too. The term dasa or dasi thus originally had ethnic connotations although enslaved women in addition to domestic help could also be asked to provide sexual services. In the Mahabharata, the ethnic dimension is not in evidence. A dasa/dasi denotes a human being under the complete control of a master. How did people become dasas or dasis ? The Mahabharata tells us about enslavement as a result of bet or as a result of defeat in gambling as in the case of Draupadi in the Sabha Parva. Women who were born in the family of slaves were also treated as such. Draupadi laments in the Sabha Parva that with the enslavement of the Pandavas their children too would be considered slaves. Dasa-bharya is the term used (Dhritarashtra uses this term for Draupadi) for the wife of the slave. This phrase probably implied the reduction into slavery of a free woman if she got married to a slave or was, by circumstances (like Yudhistira) reduced to slavery. A dasi was in no way protected from the unreasonable demands of her master. Dushsasana tells Draupadi in the Sabha Parvan. “Your husbands have lost you, henceforth you are only a dasi and you will have to serve the Kaurvas now. He further says, “It does not matter whether you are badly dressed or not dressed at all, you will have to come with me.” Duryodhana could openly invite Draupadi to come and sit on his lap. Draupadi’s question regarding whether Yudhishthira had staked and lost himself before he staked her, has a background to it. A dasa/dasi had no right to personal belongings. So even in a culture where wives were ‘owned’ by their husbands, Draupadi could spot a “loophole” to avoid the disgrace in store for her. A dasi had to perform all types of tasks for her master and his household. Duryodhana demands that Draupadi take off her rich attire and assume that of a menial and clean his palace. What sets the dasi apart from male slaves is that the dasi could also be asked to provide sexual services. That this fear of sexual violation of a dasi was very real is evident from Yudhistira’s concern about how Draupadi would fare in Virata’s palace where she would be under the guise of Sairandhri. Another significant problem that the wise Draupadi touches upon is regarding her son Prativindhya. When she is offered a boon by Dhritarashtra she asks for the freedom of her husbands. One of the reasons she mentions is that she does not want her son to be known as the son of a slave. He has been the son of a king and it seems unbrearable that he might be reduced to being the son of a slave. The first boon procures the freedom of Yudhishthira, the 14 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature second that of Bhimasena, Arjuna, Nakul and Sahdev. She declines a third boon. Even in that patriarchal society, a woman becomes the last refuge of her five husbands. 1.3.3 Check Your Progress 1. What is the cause of Duryodhan’s unhappiness when he attends the Rajasuya Yagya organized by the Pandavas? 2. Why does Yudhishthira accept the challenge for a game of dice? 3. What are the rules of the game? 4. Why does Vidur appeal to Dhritrashtra and not Yudhishthira to stop the game? 5. At which stage is Draupadi put up as a stake? 6. What is her question to the Sabha? 7. Why is Draupadi called a dasi by Dushasana? 8. Why does Draupadi use her two boons to free her five husbands? 1.4 ‘SEQUEL TO DICING’ 1.4.1 The Scheming Duryodhan Plans a Sequel In this section of the epic, there follows the anudyuta, the follow up game, in which Duryodhana, with his father’s consent decides to stake Hastinapur against Indraprastha. It is the final moment of truth: this time not the slow attrition of possessions but an instant play of identity. Yudhishtira cannot refuse, for he is under the ritual obligation. But the authors keep the story going. The play is not quite an all or nothing play, but close enough This section, as you can see, is much shorter than ‘The Dicing’. Whereas the earlier section is a vital one in the plot of the story this one gives us a number of clues to the direction the story will take. Also, it is a peculiar combination of psychological traits, human behaviour and weaknesses and a great deal of philosophising about life and human wrong doing. There are passages which contain expositions of Hindu ritual and the vows and prophecies of the Pandavas and Draupadi give us clues about the future. Vidura, endowed with divyadrishti foretells a gloomy future and Dhirtrashtra is torn between paternal love and fair play. 15 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) Draupadi having used two of the three boons given to her by Dhritrashtra has been able to free her husbands and they return to their kingdom with all their wealth and freedom. Duryodhan however paints a horrific picture in words for the blind Dhritrashtra and makes him believe that the Pandavas will return to avenge the indignities and humiliation to which they were subjected in the Assembly. The might of Bhima and Arjuna would wipe out the whole Kuru clan and the only way to pre-empt that is to call them back for a final decisive game of dice where the stake would be a twelve-year exile to the forest for the loser and another year living incognito. If discovered, they would have to face another twelve years in exile. This is a plot that has been carefully planned with the help of Sakuni and Karna. Two reasons become instrumental in Dhritrashtra giving his consent for a sequel to dicing. It is said that on the one hand he gets convinced by Duryodhan that the Pandavas would certainly attack the Kauravas to avenge their humiliation and would thus kill them all. On the other hand, it is also said that it is Dhritrashtra’s blind love for his son that makes him give his consent for a second game of dice. He goes against the advice of all his kinsmen. The belief in destiny too plays a part here for he tells Gandhari that if the line of Kauravas is to end, he cannot avert it: "The king, thus addressed by Gandhari who pointed out to him in such language the path of virtue, replied unto her, saying,--'If the destruction of our race is come, let it take place freely. I am ill able to prevent it. Let it be as they (these my sons) desire. Let the Pandavas return. And let my sons again gamble with the sons of Pandu." (Sabha Parva, Book II Section LXXIV). Gandhari however warns Dhritrashtra against believing his wicked son and to follow the law. Her behaviour is more reasonable and is neither fatalistic nor clouded by blind love for her son. Gandhari like other women in the epic (Kunti, Draupadi) is the one sane voice who knows her son Duryodhana very well and is apprehensive because of the terrible portents that had accompanied his birth. Dhritrashtra’s frequent references to destiny however, add to the fatalistic perspective which surfaces from time to time in the epic. Even the mighty Drona with whom the entire Kaurava clan seek refuge, seems like a victim of his own destiny condemned to die at the hands of Drupada, a king whom he had deprived of his kingship. Duryodhan’s plan is to stop the Pandavas before they reach their kingdom. Dhritrashtra sends word to Yudhishthira to call them back for a second decisive game of dice. Yudhishthira’s acceptance is based on two things. The fact that he follows the path of law and dharma and knows that he cannot disobey the king makes him accept the proposal even though he is acutely aware of the fact that he would be staking everything on it once again and might lose 16 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature it all. The second view that emerges from the text is that he thinks that whatever is to happen will happen and he takes it to be the will of God. The Pandavas resign to their fate. Thus, the stage is set for a second game of dice – the sequel to dicing. 1.4.2 The Second Game of Dice The Pandavas return to the assembly hall. The stake is victory against twelve-year exile in the forest followed by one year of living in the open without being discovered. The game begins and Yudhishthira loses to Sakuni. The Kauravas win with their deceit and trickery. The Pandavas once again lose their wealth, their kingdom and also their comfort. They have to now dress up in deer skin and set off to live a life of exile for twelve years in the forest. They seem to be crushed by a sense of destiny being thus played out. Dushasana’s insulting comments on the Pandavas and his demeaning offer to Draupadi to leave the destitute Pandavas and come over and choose a husband from amongst the rich Kurus is enough to rile the agitated Bhima. He warns Dushasana and pledges to drink his blood in war. “As thou piercest our hearts hear with these thy arrowy words, so shall I pierce thy heart in battle, recalling all this to thy mind. And they also who from anger or covetousness are walking behind thee as thy protectors, --them also shall I send to the abode of Yama with their descendants and relatives.” (Book 2: Sabha Parva: Section LXXVI) The Pandavas accept the verdict and prepare to depart for the forest. They have followed the path of dharma and have submitted to the rule of law. But the anger seething in each of their hearts is palpable and finds manifestation in the manner of their departure. When Dhritrashtra asks Vidur to describe for him the manner in which each of the Pandavas left Vidur speaks thus: “Yudhishthira, the son of Kunti, hath gone away covering his face with his cloth. And Bhima, O king, hath gone away looking at his own mighty arms. And Jishnu (Arjuna) hath gone away, following the king spreading sand-grains around. And Sahadeva, the son of Madri, hath gone away besmearing his face, and Nakula, the handsomest of men, O king, hath gone away, staining himself with dust and his heart in great affliction. And the large-eyed and beautiful Krishna hath gone away, covering her face with her dishevelled hair following in the wake of the king, weeping and in tears. And O monarch, Dhaumya goeth along the road, with kusa grass in hand, and uttering the aweful mantras of Sama Veda that relate to Yama.” (The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva: Section LXXIX). 17 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) On being asked, Vidur gives the reasons behind the behaviour of each one of the Pandavas as they leave. Beginning with Yudhishthira he says that after being deprived of his kingdom by dishonest means he goes with closed eyes to save people from his anger. Bhim flexes his mighty arms desiring to use their strength against their enemy. The grains that Arjun scatters as he follows in the footsteps of Yudhishthira are signify the arrows he would rain on his enemiesin the battle. Sahdev doesn’t wish to be recognized in his day of trouble and Nakul smears his face with dust lest the ladies looking at him lose their hearts to him. Vidur’s description of Draupadi is heartrending and at the same time instills fear in the onlookers. Vidur describes her thus: “And Draupadi goeth, attired in one piece of stained cloth, her hair dishevelled, and weeping, signifying--'The wives of those for whom I have been reduced to such a plight, shall on the fourteenth year hence be deprived of husbands, sons and relatives and dear ones and smeared all over with blood, with hair dishevelled and all in their feminine seasons enter Hastinapore having offered oblations of water (unto the manes of those they will have lost).”.” (Book 2: Sabha Parva: Section LXXIX) He next spaeaks of Daumya, the Panadava priest who in a terrifying manner with kusa grass in his hand,goes chanting the mantras of Sama Veda that relate to Yama the God of death. His manner, says Vidur, signifies that when the battle wll be over the priests of the kauravs will chant these mantras for their dead. As the Pandavas leave all signs indicate that a disastrous war is imminent now! 1.4.3 Check Your Progress 1. Why does Duryodhan want to call the Pandavas back for a second game of dice? 2. What are the reasons for Dhritrashtra giving his consent? 3. Why does Gandhari oppose it? 4. Why does Yudhishthir accept the challenge? 5. What role does destiny play here? 6. In the ‘Sequel to Dicing’ what kind of future does Vidur foretell? 18 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature 1.5 THE GAME OF DICE IN RELATION TO THE PLOT The question that often comes to mind is, “Why does the game of dice have such a crucial significance in the Mahabharata?” After all, anywhere, anyone who knows the least bit about the Mahabharata also knows about the game of dice, about Yudhishthira, Duryodhana, Shakuni and the loss of the Kingdom, the brothers, and the beloved wife Draupadi. Everyone also knows that Shakuni was a trickster, Duryodhana a greedy cruel prince, Dhritarashtra, a partisan guardian, Bhishma an impotent head of a disintegrating clan. Let us look at the various reasons which render this episode to crucial. The first thing to note is the absence of Krishna during the game of dice. Krishna has been a visible and significant presence during the Rajasuya yagya and has been the guest of honour. He has been present in the earlier part of the book of the assembly hall but is absent during the climax, the game of dice. His absence is explained by his required presence to settle important war business with Sambha who had assaulted Dvaraka. This whole sequence of Krishna’s presence and absence can be seen as the work of poet contributors who wished to glorify and deify him. After all the historical Krishna was just a chieftain, brother of Balram, and lord of Dwarka. The religious deity can be seen here in the process of evolution. When Krishna is absent things go horribly wrong and even the desperate calling out to him prevents, somewhat, Draupadi’s shame.” The Rajasuya of Yudhishthira has been made an occasion to glorify Krishna. He is not quite the God yet — at least not by Bhagavad-Gita standards—but his incipient godhead already requires his absence from situations that he cannot dominate.” (van Buitenen). Had he attended the dicing no doubt he would have interfered on behalf of the Pandavas, which would have meant the end of the game, and thus, in effect, the end of the Mahabharata. To examine this question, we have to remind ourselves that the epic is an itihas purana— a work of art—a poetic composition. However, the poetic skills of the composer/composers are so highly developed that we have before us a very dramatic climax. It is like the climactic scene or episode of a play. The plot hinges upon this scene. The tragic action is precipitated henceforth. All the major characters are exposed for what they are. Their dialogues are revelatory. Whatever hypocrisy might have lain dormant in the self- righteous Bhishma or Dhritarashtra is revealed, as is their impotence in the face of a rash and impatient Duryodhana. So, while on the one hand this scene exposes the male characters, on the other hand it makes us acutely aware of the limitations of women, even royal women like Draupadi. 19 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) It is also a scene which brings together Draupadi & Krishna conveying a double lesson, as subsequent myths of sati Draupadi indicate. Draupadi is depicted and worshipped in later cults as the model of the intelligent and loyal wife. Her chastity (satitva) has the power to prevent her shame. On the other hand, it enables the performance of a miracle by Krishna, the endless lengthening of her sari as Duryodhana tries to strip her in the Sabha. This episode actually provides drama, thrill, villainy, excitement, which are very obvious to us because of the advantage of media exposure which we have unlike earlier readers of the epic. So far, we have seen the tangible ways in which the Dicing is crucial to the rest of the Mahabharata. There is yet another vital point to note on the matter. That relates to the philosophy and the religious dimension of the epic. If there had been no game of Dice, there would have been no humiliation of the Pandavas and molestation of Draupadi. Had these not taken place, the provocation for all the vows of bringing destruction upon the Kauravas and their allies would have been lost. Draupadi’s violent curses and Bhima’s vows of revenge are rooted in this episode. Within the larger context of the epic there is a large number of characters who have to fulfil their destiny and it is the Mahabharata war, which will provide the opportunity. The Shikandi—Bhishma struggle, Drona’s death and various other scores are settled in the war resulting from the Kauravas’ refusal to hand over legitimate power and property to the Pandavas. It is in the war whose seeds were sown at the game of Dice that the most profound religious discourse of all time was recited. The Bhagavadgita, the ultimate treatise on man’s conduct in life, was actually a counselling lecture to Arjun by Lord Krishna when Arjun is reduced to inaction at the prospect of fighting his own brethren. I am sure you do not miss the religious stature of the Krishna who began as a political manipulator and chieftain in the early books of the epic. 1.5.1 Check Your Progress 1. Why is Krishna absent in the game of dice? 2. How does the episode help build Krishna’s stature as a god? 3. Why is the game of dice structurally important to the Mahabharat? 4. Can we say that without the game of dice the Mahabharat would not have been possible? 5. What light does the episode throw on the male characters in the epic and on the position of women in those times? 20 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature 1.6 SUMMING UP ‘The Dicing’ and the ‘’Sequel to the Dicing are two crucial episodes in the epic on which the entire narrative hinges. In these two episodes we see how the conniving and scheming Duryodhan along wth Shakuni, Karna and the Kauravas not only defeats Yudhisththir in a game of dice but reduces the Pandavas to the level of slaves and leaves them penniless. Draupadi’s humiliation is the last straw and her two pertinent questions force the Assembly to think. Dhritrashtra then grants her three boons two of which she uses to get back the Pandavas their freedom and their wealth and kingdom. Duryodhan however, plans a sequel and true to his dharma Yudhishthir cannot refuse the challenge. A second game of dice follows which is again lost by the Pandavas and they are sent on a twelve year exile to the forest with the condition of living the thirteenth year incognito. In these two episodes we observe the virtue and righteousness of the Pandavas and the deviousness of the Kauravas. We also witness the helplessness of people like Gandhari and Bhishm who fail to counsel Duryodhan and see how destiny plays its part when Duryodhan is able to convince Dhritrashtra to give his consent for a second decisive game of dice. From the point of view of the whole epic, the episode picks up threads from the books of the earlier part, but more significantly it prepares the reader for the action of the subsequent books. It provides a catalyst for the resolution to all the conflicts referred to in the earlier parts of the epic. In the process it reverberates in a transgenerational framework. This means that the action affects and is brought about, by more than two generations. The most obvious character whose life spans a long period of time is Bhishma who has seen Satyawati, Vichitravirya, Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana and his descendants. In fact, the events of the game of dice cast their shadow on the characters right up to the gates of heaven i.e., their death. 1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Buitenen, J. A. B. van, The Mahabharata. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978 Chaturvedi, Badrinath. The Mahabharata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2006. Crystal, David. Cambridge Encyclopedia in Paperback. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1997 R. N. Dandekar: Mahabharata Revisited. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2011. 21 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) Ganguli, Kisari Mohan, Trans. The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2008. G. C. Pande. “Socio-cultural Milieu of the Mahabharata: An Age of Change”. Reflections and Variations on ‘The Mahabharata’. Ed. T R S Sharma. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2009. Gupta Kanav and Meha Pande Ed. The Mahabharata: Selections from Sabha Parva and Udyog Parva. Trans. J.A.B. Van Buitenen. Delhi: Worldview, 2016. Karve, Irawati. Yuganta: The End of an Epoch. Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan, 2007. McGrath, Kevin “Speaking of Truth”. Stri: Women in Epic Mahabharata. Boston: Ilex Foundation, 2009. Pp 153-184. Rajagopalchari, C. Mahabharata. Calcutta: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1951. Sinha, J P. The Mahabharata: A Literary Study. New Delhi: Meharchand Lachhmandas, 1977. Thapar, Romila, “War in the ‘Mahabharata’”, PMLA, Vol. 124, No. 5, Special Topic: War (Oct. 2009), pp. 1830-1833. Woods, Julian F. Destiny and Human Initiative in the Mahabharata. New York: New York State UP. 2001 22 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Unit-I(b) General Introduction to The Mahabharata The Epic Conventions and Indian Epic Poetry in Sanskrit An epic is defined as a long narrative poem depicting heroic deeds of great characters, usually showcasing their great gallantry and bravery on a grand scale. An epic is broadly classified under the genre of poetry as one of the major forms of narrative literature. It comprises of both oral and written work. The word epic is derived from the Greek adjective epikos which translates to poetic story. The epic poems grew out of heroic poetry which was about characters from history or legend. The epic genre deals with subjects such as myths, histories, superhuman capabilities, glorifying legends, histories, religious tales, philosophical and moral ideas. It is a means to pass on traditional values, heritage and culture from one generation to another without the need to write. An epic usually celebrates the life and actions of national heroes who showed exemplary courage and conviction with a sense of moral duty. The primary function of epic poetry is to celebrate the exploits, victories of illustrious ancestors, trace and respect the lineage to which one belongs, to provide role models, and to pass on the rich heritage and historical knowledge to the forthcoming generation. An epic is the oldest popular genre which reflects into the national ideals, value system and sociohistorical domain. It is known for the projection of deities who are seen to intervene in human life and for its use of exalted language to add the element of awe. Aristotle ranked this genre as second only to tragedy though many Renaissance critics place the position of epic at the top of all other genres. Most of the famous epics contain a ceremonial narrative style pertaining to a grand subject. The Greek epics such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Homer, narrate the story of the Trojan War and the accomplishments of Ulysses, Achilles and other heroes of the Greek world while Virgil’s Aeneid presents the Roman history in Latin. The great epic of Dante called Divine Comedy captures the ascent of the soul from hell to heaven through the painful experience of purgatory. Milton’s greatest work the Paradise Lost deals with the reworking of the biblical stories and focuses on the subject of Man’s first disobedience. The Indian epic poetry is popularly known as Mahakavya. The epic poems that mark the beginning of this tradition in India comprises of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata which were originally composed in Sanskrit. They form a part of the canon of Hindu scriptures. The idealization of the hero and placing him on a pedestal is central to these writings. They establish the values of human civilization and highlight moral teachings such as the importance of truth and self-sacrifice. They were performed orally before transforming the 23 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) words into written form in Sanskrit and later translating it in several other languages. Along with the above, The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature and Sangam Literature helped lay the cultural foundation of India. These are some of the oldest surviving epic poems. An Indian epic is also called Itihasa in Sanskrit as it portrays events of the past centuries. The greatness of the Indian epic cannot be understood without learning about the Epic Period, its political environment, functioning of the royal palace and its association with arts and literature. The initial glimpses of epic poetry in India can be seen in Vedic Sanskrit literature particularly in the hymns of the Rig Veda. The recital of poetry was an integral part of religious events at festivals. The themes generally revolved around the stories of gods and heroes. The narrators, authors and preservers of this form of ancient poetry were the bards who lived at the king’s court and recited these compositions during feasts. Indian epic poetry finds its roots in the circle of such bards or poets. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are a collection of variety of poems which existed throughout centuries and have undergone additions, alterations, and revisions. The following are the epic conventions which define broad characteristics common to this genre: a) Invocation to the muse at the start of an epic. In the Mahabharata, Vyasa invokes Nara and Narayana, avatars of Lord Vishnu, and Goddess Saraswati. b) Epic begins in ‘media res’ that is, in the middle of action. The Mahabharata follows this technique. c) The hero of the epic has supernatural attributes overshadowing the characteristics of common people. The action displays the courage, bravery, moral duties of the hero. The heroic traits are put through a trial by the circumstances surrounding him. The Mahabharata has many central heroes like Krishna, Bhishma, Arjuna, Karna among others. d) Formal speeches by main characters. Book V of the Mahabharata has speeches by its central characters like Krishna and Karna. e) The epic style follows a grand narrative with vast setting and broad dimensions where the actions of characters can be applied in a universal context. f) Supernatural intervention – In the Mahabharata, Krishna is said to be the avatar of Lord Vishnu. Also, in Book V the birth of Karna has supernatural elements. g) Use of epic simile and repetition of stock phrases because epic poetry was passed on orally and this aspect helped in remembering the important lessons. In the Mahabharata too, lots of events and speeches are repeated. 24 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature The Mahabharata is considered as the longest epic poem. Sage Ved Vyas is credited with the authorship of this extensive work. The oldest surviving parts of the text is about 400 BCE. It deals with the struggle for power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas in Greater India. It contains more than 1,00,000 slokas (couplets) in 18 (Parvas) sections. 25 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) THE TEMPTATION OF KARNA Ratika Anand STRUCTURE 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Learning Objectives 1.3 Synopsis 1.4 Detailed Summary 1.4.1 Part I: The Advice of Krishna 1.4.1.1 Summary: Section CXL-CXLIII 1.4.1.2 Check Your Progress 1.4.1.3 Analysis of Part I 1.4.1.4 Check Your Progress 1.4.2 Part II: The Confession of Kunti 1.4.2.1 Summary: Section CXLIV-CXLVI 1.4.2.2 Check Your Progress 1.4.2.3 Analysis of Part II 1.4.2.4 Check Your Progress 1.5 Themes 1.5.1 The Question of Dharma and Morality 1.5.2 The Subject of Caste 1.5.3 Identity Crisis in Karna 1.5.4 Karna: The Tragic Hero 1.6 Summing Up 1.7 Model Questions 1.8 Glossary 1.9 References 26 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature 1.1 INTRODUCTION The Mahabharata is characterised as a work of art that would sustain socio-cultural heritage and traditions of learning. It is often called as itihasa which is as endless as the Vedas. While being both prescriptive and descriptive, it presents the past, present and future. It engages with culture, history, philosophy together with cosmology and portrays it with grandiose on a large scale. The Mahabharata is also categorized as a kavya or poem but not of an ordinary level rather at par with the Vedas. It is also conferred the status of being called as the fifth Veda. The text is envisioned as two trees, the tree of manyu or wrath and the tree of dharma or ethics. This lesson discusses sections from Book V titled “The Temptation of Karna” which unfolds the truth behind the birth of Karna who is caught in a moral conflict between his obligation to his good friend Duryodhana and his duty towards his birth mother Kunti who appeals to Karna. Karna plays a central role in the epic the Mahabharata. He is the son of Kunti and Surya, the sun god. Kunti received a mantra from sage Durvasa as a reward for taking good care of him. It would enable her to invoke a deity of her choice and have a son with him. She wanted to test the mantra and conjured the god of sun with whom she has her first son Karna. However, Kunti was a maiden at the time of his birth and she had to abandon him in order to preserve the reputation of her father. The name Karna is a Sanskrit word meaning the ear. It is said that Karna was born out of Kunti’s ear. He was born adorned with splendid earrings and a majestic armour which signifies power. They are for his protection and are symbolic of his immorality. His demeanour at the time of his birth is said to be glorious and divine. After he was abandoned by Kunti in the Ganges river, he was found by a charioteer Adhiratha and his wife Radha who take him to be their son and name him Vasusena. Karna grows up to be a successful warrior, he possesses a gift of gab and is a loyal friend to Duryodhana. Karna’s mastery in martial abilities was known to Duryodhana and he knew that only Karna can match the skill and military prowess of Arjuna but since Karna was from a lower caste it was against the moral codes to challenge a kshatriya. Duryodhana thus appoints Karna as a king of Anga so he can go against Arjuna and prove his valour. Karna is truthful in his words and generous in his actions. Despite being forewarned by his father Surya, Karna sacrifices his earrings and breast plate to Indra who was disguised as 27 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) a brahmin. Karna was then no longer invincible, yet his action was of heroic disposition. He is an upholder of integrity, principles, moral and ethical norms. Until Book V he is oblivious about his kshatriya birth. In Book V, Krishna and Kunti try to persuade Karna to join the Pandavas in the war of Kurukshetra. Krishna visits him first and tempts him by offering several benefits which he could gain by joining the Pandavas, to which Karna refuses, for he has different perspective on this issue. He follows his Dharma by being loyal to his friend Duryodhana who gave him protection and position when he was being insulted. When Kunti confesses to Karna that she is his mother and Surya god confirms the words of Kunti, he tells her about the hardships and struggles he faced to reach here. He understands that she has come because of her love for the Pandavas so out of respect he makes a promise to spare all her sons except for Arjuna. In the event of the death of either him or Arjuna, the number of her sons will remain five. Despite being faced with such difficult choice his faith did not falter. The temptation of power and piles of gold did not distract him from his duties and moral obligations. He showed confidence in his decision to be faithful towards those who supported him in his struggles. 1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES In the course of your reading, you will be able to: 1. Learn about the advice of Krishna to Karna 2. Know about the temptation of Karna and how he deals with it 3. Study the moral dilemmas faced by Karna 4. Find out the truth about Karna’s birth and identity from the confession of Kunti 1.3 SYNOPSIS The segment deals with the attempt of Krishna and Kunti to convince Karna not to participate in the battle. Karna finds out that Kunti is his biological mother. Krishna is an envoy of peace and aims to prevent the war. He warns Karna that the defeat of the Kauravas is preordained and the destruction of the world after the battle is inevitable. Krishna advises Karna to join the Pandavas as they are his brothers and accept the offer of kingship since he is the eldest son of Pandu and thereby the rightful heir to the Pandava dynasty. The confession of Kunti reveals the truth about the birth of Karna. She attempts to persuade Karna to forsake Duryodhana and unite with the Pandavas. However, Karna is not tempted by the offer of 28 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature obtaining a royal status and series of material pleasures that will be granted to him on joining the lineage of the Pandavas. He refuses to betray his well-wishers and vows to honour his commitment towards his friend, Duryodhana and his foster parents, Adhiratha, and Radha. 1.4 DETAILED SUMMARY 1.4.1 Part I: The Advice of Krishna 1.4.1.1 Section CXL The section begins with Dhritarashtra asking Sanjaya why Krishna has invited Karna to his chariot. Dhritarashtra is keen to find out what Krishna tells Karna. Sanjaya repeats the words of Krishna for Dhritarashtra. There are certain facts surrounding the birth of Karna that are ambiguous in nature. Krishna reveals that Karna is not a suta son. Karna was born to Kunti when she was a maiden. Krishna tells Karna that in the scriptures it is stated that a son born to a woman prior to her marriage is counted as the son of the wedded husband just like the other sons born out of a wedlock. So, Karna is in fact the oldest born son of Pandu and the Pandavas are his brothers. Since Karna is the eldest son, he is the rightful heir to the Pandavas. Krishna attempts to convince Karna to turn his back on Duryodhana and to unite with the Pandavas. Krishna further paints a picture to lure Karna into submitting to his plan. Karna is told about the respect and warm regards he will receive from his five Pandava brothers and his kinsmen, the elaborate rituals that would take place to welcome him and is also reminded by Krishna that in the course of joining the Pandavas he will have Draupadi as his wife. Krishna advises Karna to rejoice and be a part of the celebratory ceremonies that behold him which will be observed to welcome him to the throne. Krishna gives a vivid description of the admiration Karna will receive and the festivities which would commence to honour him if he decides to take the offer of kingship. 1.4.1.2 Check Your Progress 1. What does Krishna say to Karna? 2. How did Krishna try to tempt Karna? 3. What was Krishna’s motive behind tempting Karna? 1.4.1.1 Section CXLI Karna holds Krishna’s words and advice in high esteem. He expresses his gratitude to Krishna for showing concern. Karna understands that the suggestions of Krishna are in his 29 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) interest and welfare for which he is thankful. However, he politely refuses to accept the offer and he provides broadly two reasons for his decision. First, he voices his agony at the very thought of being abandoned at the command of Surya by his birth mother Kunti. In accordance with the scriptures, morally he is the son of Pandu but has been raised by charioteer Adhiratha and his wife Radha. They took him in as their son, performed all the necessary birth rites as a suta and raised him amidst immense love and abundance of affection. He has performed all his domestic and marital rites with sutas. Karna feels morally obligated to Adhiratha and Radha for the hardships they have endured to raise him. He was named Vasusena by his father Adhiratha. Karna married according to their will and is blessed with sons due to the selfless deeds of his parents for him. He cannot imagine breaking the bond with his parents neither in exchange for heaps of gold nor for the sake of the whole world. Secondly, he expresses his sense of moral duty towards his friend Duryodhana because of whom Karna enjoyed fifteen years of royal power without any trouble. Karna is indebted to Duryodhana for helping him gain a social status. Duryodhana is responsible for the position of Karna and has always shown confidence and belief in Karna. He is relying on Karna for his victory and Karna cannot let him down. He refuses to be a traitor and cheat his own sympathisers. Duryodhana has challenged the Pandavas to a battle and Karna has invited Arjuna to face him in a single combat. It is his duty to stand by Duryodhana in his hour of need. Karna says that even if he gets the empire, he will pass it on to Duryodhana. He requests Krishna not to disclose this secret to the Pandavas otherwise Yudhishthira will refuse the throne because the truth will stand between him and his dharma. Karna sees Yudhishthira as possessing the proper traits and qualities needed to be a ruler. Yudhishthira also has the support of his earnest and sincere kinsmen. Karna can foresee that the mighty kingdom will be won by Yudhishthira. He knows the victory of the Pandavas is predestined and the sacrifice of the Kauravas is inevitable. Karna repents his insulting behaviour and the use of harsh words towards the Pandavas for the appeasement of Duryodhana. He can envision that the Kauravas will pay a hefty price which will begin with Arjuna slaying Karna in the duel and end with the sacrifice of Duryodhana at the hands of Bhimasena. Karna prays to Krishna not to let the kshatriyas die a useless death in misery and awful conditions. He appeals to Krishna to let Kshatriyas face their death by weaponry in the most sacred place among the three worlds, the land of Kurukshetra, so that they all can attain heaven. Their courage and bravery shall be celebrated and passed on by the holy brahmins who will keep the glory of the kshatriya alive as they will continue to recite the great battle of the Bharatas till there exists mountains and rivers. 30 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature 1.4.1.2 Check Your Progress 1. Why does Karna refuse the offer of Krishna despite knowing the ill fate of the Kauravas? 2. Why does Karna feel morally obligated towards his parents, Adhiratha and Radha and his friend, Duryodhana? 3. Why does Karna request Krishna not to disclose the secret of his birth to the Pandavas? 1.4.1.1 Section CXLII Krishna asks Karna if the offer of kingship and ruling the entire world not tempt him. He reassures Karna that the victory of the Pandavas is certain. He provides gory and vivid details from the battlefield in which the Kurus being slayed at the hands of the Pandavas. This triumph of the Pandavas will mark the beginning of Kali age. Karna is told to deliver the message to Drona, Santanu’s son and Kripa that the war will commence in seven days on the Day of Indra and all those who follow the command of Duryodhana will succeed in finding their own death. 1.4.1.1 Section CXLIII Karna questions the omniscient Krishna that since he already knows everything, why did he seek to beguile and tempt him. The destruction of the whole world at the hands of Sakuni, Dussasana, Duryodhana and Karna himself is predetermined. He explains the astronomical events and astrological happening that reinforce the impending doom. Karna furthers elaborate the disturbing omens, fearsome dreams, abominable visions that are a premonition of the imminent annihilation that awaits the world. He has observed that all positive and favourable omens support the Pandavas which are an indication of their victory. Karna bids farewell to Krishna and returns with Sanjaya. 1.4.1.2 Check Your Progress 1. What were the omens and visions which foretell the victory of the Pandavas and the defeat of the Karauravs? 1.4.1.3 Analysis of Part I Krishna approaches Karna as an ambassador of peace, seeking to prevent the impending war and violence. He knows that the battleground marks their doom and will turn into a deathbed of the warriors. He approaches Karna to tell him about his high birth and disclose that Kunti 31 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) is his mother so that he will join the Pandavas. Krishna tempts him to join his own family of Pandavas and lures him with all kinds of riches, wealth, respect and honour. Krishna wants to captivate the thoughts and senses of Karna so that he would give in to the temptation and the world may witness the great reunion of Karna with his mother Kunti. Krishna, at his end, puts in efforts to stop the war from happening. He was impressed with Karna’s knowledge of Vedas and scriptures. Karna makes a virtuous decision of declining the proposal. He raises pertinent issues before Krishna. One, Karna realizes that death and destruction of the Kurus is preordained but he cannot abandon his ethical and moral duty towards his parents, Adhiratha and Radha and his best friend, Duryodhana. Two, he makes an insightful request to Krishna to keep this conversation a secret and the truth about his identity should not reach the Pandavas otherwise Yudhishthira will refuse to accept the throne. Three, he further appeals to Krishna that Kshatriya should have a respectable death and find heaven. This thoughtful response of Karna and his intuitive pleas shows his noble side. He had to decide between the two alternatives of either adhering to the suggestion of Krishna to join the Pandavas which may have led Duryodhana and therewith the Kauravas to withdraw from the war, or to abide by his moral duties and ethical codes dictated by his conscience, belief and principle to support Duryodhana. This is one of the dilemmas faced by Karna. 1.4.1.4 Check Your Progress 1. What were the reasons behind the temptation of Karna and why does Karna refuse the proposal of Krishna? 1.4.2 Part II: The Confession of Kunti 1.4.2.1 Section CXLIV This section begins with the narrator who delineates the conversation between Kshatri (Vidura) and Kunti in which Kshatri expresses his helplessness and misery at the failure to evade the battle. Even the efforts Krishna did not discourage the Kurus. He talks about his incompetence at persuading Duryodhana against the thought of the war. Yudhishthira, despite being a man of great strength, appears weak in his judgement of fighting the battle. King Dhritarashtra fails to comprehend the motivation that drives his son to the battlefield. He takes immense pride in his sons which has deprived him of judgement. He chooses to tread an unscrupulous path to his destruction. 32 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature Kunti is grief stricken at hearing the words of Vidura and thinks about the absurdity of fighting over wealth which is going to result in mass slaughter of their own family and kinsmen. But her heart seems to be divided as she also believes that the Pandavas have no option but to participate in the battle. She is constantly thinking about the repercussions of the war. On one hand, she feels that if they refuse to fight, they will end up in poverty and face disgrace which is worse than death itself. On the other hand, she believes that there is no victory in killing one’s own kinsmen either. She is mostly afraid of the power and might of Drona, Bhishma and Karna. She is hopeful that Drona may not attack his own pupils and grandfather Bhishma may favour the Pandavas but the biggest threat to them is Karna who abhors the Pandavas and his heart is filled with hatred for Arjuna. She decides to share her secret with Karna and to reveal that she gave birth to him. She recalls the days when she was devoted to the service of the holy sage Durvasa who was pleased with Kunti and taught her a mantra that would enable her to have sons from any god that she wished to invoke. Unfortunately, Kunti did not fully understand the power and future implications of the boon. She was overwhelmed with curiosity to test the mantra and summoned the sun god, Surya. The mantra was potent, and she conceived Karna. Remembering her past, she reaches the shore of river Ganges to find her son Karna chanting Vedic hymns and praying before the sun god. Kunti was certain that her son Karna will not disobey her words. 1.4.2.2 Check Your Progress 1. Why was Kunti feeling restless and worried for her sons? 2. What was the inner turmoil taking place within Kunti? 3. When does Kunti decide to tell Karna that she is his biological mother? What were the intentions behinds Kunti’s big revelation? 1.4.2.1 Section CXLV Karna respectfully greets Kunti, introduces himself as the son of Adhiratha and Radha, and asks what service he could do for her. Kunti reveals her big secret to Karna and tries to explain her predicament. She tells Karna of his majestic birth as he was born with radiant earrings and a breast plate. Karna is advised to unite with his brothers and enjoy the glory that would follow. Kunti reminds him of his duty as her son. She wants the Kauravas to witness to union of Karna and Arjuna. She knows that together they can accomplish the world. 33 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) 1.4.2.1 Section CXLVI Karna hears the voice of his real father Surya who validates the words of Kunti. He advises Karna to follow the path that his mother shows and assures Karna that it will lead to his prosperity. Karna disapproves the commands of the kshatriya law as he has been deprived of the rites of a kshatriya. He is filled with contempt at Kunti’s negligence when she abandoned him for her own interest and ignored the wellbeing of her child. He could have lost his life. He questions the actions of Kunti and asks her why she has reached out for him on the eve of the battle. He can see that she has her own vested motive behind telling Karna about his birth. Karna asks if going against his words at the eleventh hour will not be a violation of the kshatriya dharma. He says he will be regarded as a coward for dishonouring his promise and betraying the Kurus. Duryodhana has always respected him and has been attentive to his needs. He has been a dutiful friend who has obliged Karna in many ways. Karna cannot think of abandoning them in their hour of need. Karna is indebted to him and it would be against his own principles to go against someone who stood by him during his worst times. Karna however takes a pledge before Kunti that he will fight only Arjuna and not harm any of her other sons. Under any circumstance, either him or Arjuna will survive along with the rest of her four sons. Thus, the number of her sons would continue to remain five. 1.4.2.2 Check Your Progress 1. How did Karna respond to Kunti’s confession? 2. What reasons did Karna cite for his refusal of Kunti’s offer? 3. How did Karna show respect and prove his regard for Kunti? 1.4.2.3 Analysis of Part II Kunti was worried contemplating the outcome of the war of the Kurukshetra. She was mostly afraid of the gnawing hatred of Karna towards the Pandavas especially Arjuna. By revealing to Karna the truth about his parentage, Kunti wanted to secure the lives of her sons. She was confident that Karna will not disappoint her and will join his brothers in the battle. Her intentions though questioned by Karna are not entirely wrong. As a mother she wanted do to the best for the protection of her sons. At the same time, the refusal of Karna to accept her proposal was conscious and self-righteous decision of Karna. He had to decide between his duty towards his birth parents and his moral obligations towards his friend, Duryodhana. The decision to choose one duty over another can be a challenging and Karna was bound by his 34 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Indian Classical Literature ethical codes. His regard for Kunti’s sentiments is seen when he promises not to kill any of her sons in the battle except for Arjuna. 1.4.2.4 Check Your Progress 1. What did Kunti confess before Karna? Why did she decide to tell Karna the secret of his birth on the eve of the battle? 2. What were the duties that held back Karna from accepting Kunti’s offer? 1.5 THEMES 1.5.1 The Question of Dharma and Morality Dharma is a complex notion in Indian philosophy, religion and spirituality. It’s a doctrine with multiple layers which teaches to uphold the moral duties and ethical principles and practice virtue, righteousness and good behaviour to preserve the order of the universe. It also instructs to abide by cosmic laws and to act in accordance with the belief system stated in scriptures. This will guide one to follow the path of the duties and actions as defined by one’s birth. Karna places more importance on his loyalty to Duryodhana as compared to the recommendation of Krishna to switch sides to join the Pandavas and become the king in accordance to Dharma-sastra, the sacred book of Hindus in Sanskrit pertaining to dharma, religious and legal duty. There are primarily three dilemmas which are faced by Karna. Firstly, the moral conflict within Karna whether to join his brothers and reunite with the Pandavas or to show allegiance to Duryodhana who has supported Karna in his trials and tribulations. Secondly, Karna is a dutiful son and is seen to be torn between his obligation and responsibility towards his foster parents, Adhiratha and Radha, and his birth parents, the sun god and Kunti. Thirdly, there exists a latent conundrum in the mind of Karna if he should adhere to the ethical duties and principles of kshatriya dharma or fulfil the expectation of Suta varna. Each dilemma reveals a different side of the character who is faced with complex choices. It is difficult to arrive at one right decision because both the choices are right in their own premises, and it is almost like holding one duty as more important against the other. Karna is thus faced with a complex challenge which is not to decide right from wrong but to choose one duty over another. 1.5.2 The Subject of Caste Karna is resentful of the discrimination he faces for being a son of a charioteer. He wanted to acquire the art of warfare from Drona who refused Karna due to his caste. He disguised 35 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi B.A. (Hons.) English /B.A. (Programme) himself as a brahmin to become a student of Parashurama. He was stopped from participating in Draupadi’s Swayamvar due to his caste. His suta status came in the way of showcasing his martial skills. According to the scriptures, a suta due to his lower caste was not allowed to fight a kshatriya. When Karna challenged Arjuna, instead of accepting it he insulted Karna by calling him a suta. Duryodhana saw in Karna the potential equal to that of Arjuna. He found Karna to be someone to befriend in order to balance out the power of combatant Arjuna. Karna is made the king of Anga by Duryodhana so he can challenge Arjuna. Karna proved to be a better archer than Arjuna. Karna in his hatred vowed to defeat and kill Arjuna. In Book V, Kunti confesses to Karna that she is his birth mother and asks him to follow his Kshatriya duty of protecting his brothers and appeals to Karna to side with the Pandavas in the war. This stirs more bitterness in Karna as he realizes that he was denied his inherent status of a kshatriya. He discerns that the reason behind the invocation of the kshatriya code by Krishna and his mother Kunti is the prevention of the war of Kurukshetra and protection of the Pandavas respectively. Despite his hatred for the Pandavas, he shows reverence to Kunti and promises not to harm any of her sons except for Arjuna. This way in the event of his or Arjuna’s death, the number of her sons will always remain five. 1.5.3 Identity Crisis in Karna Karna was born as a Kshatriya in a ruling class family but in no time, he was transformed in a lower caste. The caste is linked to the social identity of an individual. Karna is insulted and considered a social outcaste because of his alternate identity. This crisis of identity made him feel ill-fated and segregated. He doesn’t give up and continues to fight in order to establish his place in the society, but his hopes are crushed repeatedly. He was intrigued by the earrings and the armour with which he was born. Family, kin, caste, class are closely connected to formulation of an identity. However, Karna had no support of any of the above elements to strengthen his position. It was Duryodhana who made Karna a kshatriya by merit if not birth and for this gesture Karna was eternally grateful to him. Despite receiving the royal title from Duryodhana, Karna was still seen as a misfit. Even though he learnt about his birth and was advised by Krishna to accept kingship to the Pandava dynasty, Karna chose dharma. He did not yield to the temptati

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