Understanding The Self PDF

# Understanding The Self ## Republic of the Philippines Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Social Sciences and Development Department of Psychology ## Instructional Material for GEED 10013 ### **Authors:** - Filipinas Corazon B. Abadilla, RPm - Charlon Agos - Jonna Karla C. Bie...

# Understanding The Self ## Republic of the Philippines Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Social Sciences and Development Department of Psychology ## Instructional Material for GEED 10013 ### **Authors:** - Filipinas Corazon B. Abadilla, RPm - Charlon Agos - Jonna Karla C. Bien, RN, MP - Adrian Nicole S. Buan, MA, RPm - Barbara P. Camacho, RGC - Ma. Luz Centeno, RGC - Rafael Lou Carlos L. Chinchilla, RPm - Ma. Corazon Constantino - Ma. Jeanette A. De Guzman - Ma. Aurora De Leon - Zaila C. Decin, MP, RPm - John Mark S. Distor, PhD, RPm - Adrian Guinto, MP - Maria Laya T. Lara, RPm - Aimee Rose A. Manda, MP - Arianne Nicole Nachor, RPm - Alexander B. Prudente Jr., MP - Victoria Antonia R. Rafanan, RPm - Krisette Romero, RPm - Elfie M Samaniego, RPm, RGC - Geraldine Santos, MP, RPsy - Felicitas C. Trinidad, MP, RPm ## Table of Contents - **Introduction to Course** - **Part 1: The Self from Various Perspectives** - Lesson 1 - Philosophy - Lesson 2 - Sociology - Lesson 3 - Anthropology - Lesson 4 - Psychology - Lesson 5 - The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought - **Part 2: Unpacking the Self** - Lesson 6 - The Physical Self - Lesson 7 - The Sexual Self - **Midterm Assessment** - Lesson 8 - The Material and Economic Self - Lesson 9 - The Spiritual Self - Lesson 10 - The Political Self - Lesson 11 - The Digital Self - **Part 3: Managing and Caring for the Self** - Lesson 12 - Learning to be a better student - Lesson 13 - Setting goals for Success - Lesson 14 - Taking charge of one's health - **Final Assessment** - **References** ## Special Instructions - You may choose to answer your activities in a notebook or in separate pieces of paper. - If using a notebook: - **Part A** should be named **Activities** - **Part B** should be named **Assessment** - **Part C** should be named **Midterm Assessment** - **Part D** should be named **Final Assessment** - If using pieces of paper: - Make sure you follow the activities and assessment in their corresponding pages. ## **Introduction** The course deals with the nature of identity, as well as the factors and forces that affect the development and maintenance of personality identity. The directive to Know Oneself has inspired countless and varied ways to comply. Among the questions that everyone has had to grapple with at one time or other is "Who am I?". At no other period is this question asked more urgently than in adolescence - traditionally believed to be a time of vulnerability and great possibilities. Issues of self and identity are among the most critical for the young. This course is intended to facilitate the exploration of the issues and concerns regarding self and identity to arrive at a better understanding of one's self. It strives to meet this goal by stressing the integration of the personal with the academic - contextualizing matters discussed in the classroom and in the everyday experience of students - making for better learning, generating a new appreciation for the learning process, and developing a more critical and reflective attitude while enabling them to manage and improve their selves to attain a better quality of life. The course is divided into three major parts: 1. **The first** seeks to understand the construct of the self from various disciplinal perspectives: philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology - as well as the more traditional division between the East and West - each seeking to provide answers to the difficult but essential question of "What is the self?" And raising, among others, the question: "Is there even such a construct as the self?" 2. **The second** part explores some of the various aspects that make up the self, such as the biological, material and the more recent Digital Self. 3. **The third** and the final part identifies three areas of concern for young students: learning, goal setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more practical application of the concepts discussed in this course and enables them the hands-on experience of developing self-help plans for self-regulated learning, goal setting, and self-care. This course includes the mandatory topics on Family Planning and Population Education. ## Part 1: The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives ### Learning Outcomes: At the end of this section, you are expected to: 1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal perspectives. 2. Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self. 3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different disciplines and perspectives. 4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one's self and identity by developing a theory of the self. ## Philosophy - Lesson 1 ### Introduction Philosophy is a training guide for your mind, showing how you think in clear, analytic, and powerful ways. Studying philosophy in a serious and reflective way will change you as a person. Learning to think philosophically will inspire you to be more thoughtful, more open-minded, more attuned to the complexities and subtleties of life, more willing to think critically about yourself and all of life's important issues, and less willing to accept superficial interpretations and simplistic answers. And will help you develop the understanding and insight you will need to make intelligent choices and fulfill your potential as an individual. This is the special power of philosophy: to provide the conceptual tools required to craft a life inspiring in its challenges and rich in its fulfillment. Philosophy is not intended to limit your options or dictate your choices. Your responsibility as a student is to explore, to reflect, to think critically - and then to create yourself in the image you have envisioned. ## Philosophy of the Self - Lesson Proper ### What is Philosophy? * Study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves in answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live in. ### What is Self? * "A unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational choice). ## Philosophers 1. **Socrates** - First martyr of education, knowledge, and philosophy. His philosophy underlies in the importance of the notion "knowing oneself". A person's acceptance of ignorance is the beginning of acquisition of knowledge. But, possession of knowledge is a virtue; ignorance is a depravity (evil, corruption, wickedness). Knowing ourselves, lies in our own abilities, and wisdom. Understanding ourselves is through internal questioning or introspection (understanding our strengths and weaknesses, like vs. Dislike) His way of teaching called Socratic Method or Socratic conversation (role of both the teacher and the student is known to the world; asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions). However, he was charged with corruption of minors and died as a martyr that fought against ignorance and narrow-mindedness. But for him, men's goal in life is to obtain happiness. It motivates us to act towards or avoid things that could have negative effects in our lives. As such, by fully knowing oneself a person will be able to achieve happiness. 2. **Plato** - He is a student of Socrates that is the reason he followed the idea of Socrates in knowing thyself. He was called the Father of academy (a place where learning and sharing of knowledge happens; Later became one of the pillars and basis of what schools and education is now in the present). He also wrote several literatures that tackles politics, human nature and established the idea of virtue and intelligence. According to Plato, a person who is a follower of truth and wisdom will not be tempted by vices and will always be correct/moral/ethical. He believed in the division of a person's body and soul which forms the person as a whole aside from the material things and that could be observed and associated with a person. He believed that the soul is divided into 3 different parts that has different views, leading to different behaviors - **Appetitive soul** - the part of the person that is driven by desire and need to satisfy oneself. This satisfaction involves physical needs, pleasures and desires, objects, and situations - **Spirited soul** - courageous part of a person. One who wants to do something or to right the wrongs that they observe. This is very competitive and is very active. Competitiveness drives one to expect positive results and winning. - **Rational soul** - the drive of our lives. The part that thinks and plan for the future (the conscious mind). It decides what to do, when to do it and the possible results one could have depending on their actions. 3. **St. Augustine** - A saint and a philosopher of the church. He follows the idea that God encompasses us all, that everything will be better if we are with God. He believed that God and his teachings affects various aspects in life (that everything is better if we devote ourselves in mending our relationship with God). His idea of a man and how to understand who we are as a person is related to our understanding of who we are and how we question ourselves. He also relates our existence to God being modelled in his likeness though being alive means that we are still far from god and has yet to be truly with him. But he rejected the doubtfulness of the academy in which one cannot or should not accept ideas from others. St. Augustine emphasized that we may not be able to give our agreement to everything other people tell us, but we can still agree to those who we are from our own perception. His believes that teaching the church and establishing our sense of self with God identifies the essence of our existence and role in the world (the reason for this is because our bodies are limited). 4. **Rene Descartes** - a French philosopher known to be the father of modern philosophy because of his radical use of systematic and early scientific method to aid his ideas and assumptions. He believed in modern dualism or the existence of body and mind and its importance to on e's existence were presented with the evidences from experiments as well as philosophical reasoning. Descartes is known to be the proponent of the "methodical doubt" (continuous process of questioning) doubting, asking questions are part of one's existence. He defined the roles of the mind and body to the notion of one's existence and sense of self. He is known for the statement "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am) and according to him, a person is comprised of mind (thinks and questions what the body has experienced) and body (perceives from the different senses). The body and its perceptions cannot fully be trusted or can easily be deceived (for example: there are times that we feel that a dream is real before actually waking up or having different perception of size based on an objects distance from the viewer). Descartes believes that we should focus on the mind in order to perceive as who we are or the essence of our existence because we cannot always trust our senses. He explained that the more we think and doubt what we perceived from our senses and the answer that came from such thin king or doubting leads to better understanding of ourselves. He also emphasizes that being in constant doubt regarding one's existence is proof that a person exists. 5. **John Locke** - An English philosopher and physician. He is the Father of Classical Liberation. His works paved the way to several revolutions to fight the absolute powers of monarchs and rulers of his time that led to the development of governance, politics, and economic system that we now know. He works on the self is most represented by the concept "tabula rasa" (blank slate). The experiences and perceptions of a person is important in the establishment of who that person can become. Locke does not disregard the experiences of the person in the identification and establishment of who we are as a person. He stated that a person is born with knowing nothing and that is susceptible to stimulation and accumulation of learning from the experiences, failures, references, and observations of the person. 6. **David Hume** - A Scottish philosopher. He focused his work in the field of empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. He explained that the Self is the accumulation of different impressions and does not exceed the physical realm. For him, there is no permanent self because impressions of things are based from our experiences where we can create our ideas and knowledge. Thus, it may improve or totally be replaced. 7. **Immanuel Kant** - A German philosopher that is known for his works on empiricism and rationalism. He established that the collection of impressions and different contents is what it only takes to define a person. He believes that the awareness of different emotions that we have, impressions and behavior is only a part of ourselves. He emphasizes that a person who fully understand the self has a certain level of consciousness or sense that uses our intuition which synthesizes all the experiences, impressions and perceptions of ourselves will pave the way to define and know who we are really are. But he argued that the sense called "transcendental apperception" is an essence of our consciousness that provides basis for understanding and establishing the notion of self by synthesizing one's accumulation of experiences, intuition, and imagination. 8. **Sigmund Freud** - An Austrian psychologist and physician. The Father of psychoanalysis. Freud is well known for his work on human nature and the unconscious. He believed that man has different constructs of personality. He conceptualized about the different levels of consciousness that provides an idea how a person develops a sense of self: Man has 3 aspects of personality - **Id** - the child aspect of a person; attention is on satisfaction of one's needs and self-gratification. Driven by pleasure principle. - **Super ego** - the conscience of one's personality. Has the inclination to uphold justice and do what is morally right and socially acceptable actions. Involved in the notion of right or wrong that is imparted to us by our parents or people that took care for us during childhood - **Ego** - police or the mediator between id and super ego. Operates within the boundaries of reality, primary function is to maintain the impulses of the id to an acceptable degree. **Introduced the Levels of Consciousness:** - **Conscious** - where minority of our memories are being stored and the memories that are in the conscious is easier to be to be tapped or accessed - **Pre-conscious** - the middle part of the entirety of our consciousness; the memories stored in this area can still be accessed but with a little difficulty - **Unconscious** - this area is where majority of our memories since childhood are deeply stored. It is very difficult to tap the memories. It would need a trained professional and several special techniques in order to make some memories resurface He believed that we are a by-product of our experiences in the past and that are actions are driven by the idea of resisting or avoiding pain, and are molded from our need for pleasure or being happy. 9. **Gilbert Ryle** - He used behavioristic approach to self. According to him, self is the behavior presented by the person. The behavior that we show, emotions, and actions are the reflection of our mind and as such is the manifestation of who we are. He does not believe that the mind and body are two separate entities which is said to be evident in the unexplainable phenomenon or abilities of the mind where the soul is considered; however, to some they can co-exist. He explained that the self is exemplified in his "ghost in the machine" view (man is a complex machine with different functioning parts, and the intelligence, and other characteristic or behavior of man is represented by the ghost in said machine. His idea is saying that the things that we do, how we behave and react and all other components like the way we talk, walk and look is generally who we are as a person. 10. **Paul Churchland** - A Canadian philosopher whose focus is on the idea that people should improve our association and use of worth in identifying the self. The self is defined by the movement of our brain. A constant movement of the brain can be the basis of who the person is (emphasized by Churchland and his wife in the statement "the brain as the self"). He focuses on the philosophy of "eliminative materialism" and understanding the different neural pathways, how they work, and what implications are those movement to people is a measurable classification on one's behavior 11. **Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty** - A French philosopher. He is known for his works on existentialism and phenomenology. He coined the idea of phenomenology of perception (unity of the function of the mind and the body) which is divided into three division. Merleau-Ponty regarded that the body and mind are not separate entities but rather those two components is one and the same. His idea of perception follows the idea of Gestalt psychology (gives importance on the whole rather than the sum of its parts). The perception guides our action based from our experiences. The body perceives while our consciousness provides the meaning or interprets the various perception we have in the world and the self could be established by the perceptions we have in the world. One's actions, behavior and language used could be said to be the reflection of our united perception of the world. 12. **Thomas Aquinas** - The most eminent 13th century scholar and stalwart of the medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian view. He explained that Man is composed of two parts: Matter or hyle in Greek, refers to the "common stuff that makes up everything in the universe." and Form or morphe in Greek refers to the "essence of a substance or thing". In the case of human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares even with animals. The cells in man's body are akin to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or a tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, the soul is what animates the body; it is what makes us humans. ## Part 2: Unpacking the Self - **Learning Outcomes:** At the end of this section, you are expected to. - Explore the different aspects of self and identity - Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and identity - Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and identity - Examine one's self against the different aspects of self-discussed in class. ## Physical Self - Lesson 6 ### Introduction "She warned him to be deceived by appearances, For Beauty is found within." - Beauty and the Beast People now a days are too conscious how they look. How they see themselves in the mirror, how people will look at them and what will people say about them. Our concept of our self and the perception of people around us will always have big effect on how we deal in a situation, cultural or not. ### Lesson Proper **Physical Self** - refers to the body which we interface with our environment and fellow being. It is a tangible of the person that can be directly observed examined. * Arthur Marwick (1988) defends the view that physical beauty is no more than what it is: only "skin deep". It is a fact of life that some people are physically beautiful while others are not. * Physical beauty is defined as a feature of a person's body. This feature can be valued, it seems, independent of others that make a person valuable, such as intellect, character, or humor. However physical beauty was also considered suspect and dangerous, due to its link to sexuality and its "merely carnal", power and seductive side. * The modern view that acknowledges the autonomous status of physical beauty, although widespread nowadays, is still contested by both feminists (beauty as a suspect concept, as a male construct of feminine looks) as well a religious conservatives (only inner beauty counts). ### Physical Beauty in its own right The culture in which we are surrounded by has a significant impact on how we feel about ourselves and the manner in which we think about our body. A person's attractiveness depends on many features. We can value a person at different levels with respect to his or her: - Physical looks (body, face, figure) - Artistic looks (clothes, make-up, perfume, hair) - Personal looks (Appearance, impressions, aura) - Performance (voice, attitude, behavior) - Personality (charisma, charm, appeal, allure) - Relational capacities (contractual skills, communication competence) - Friendship abilities (reliable, nice, offbeat, loveable, companionable) Judgements can be made at each level. A person may have good looks, but nevertheless be a faithless friend or a very poor dresser. A person may be fat and ugly but extremely charming, with a pleasant attitude and a great personality. This is how we evaluate a person's appearance in everyday life. These distinctive evaluations clearly appreciate the levels as independent dimensions. By this we could already say that evaluating someone's beauty is difficult because we need to see the person as a whole and not just criticizing him/her because the way of his/her dress or because of his/her skin color. Beauty is Beauty. If we then accept the conclusion that physical beauty can be valued, an important implication follows. Intervention in the body itself is often the only way out for those who want to be physically beautiful, and cosmetic or aesthetic surgery can be, at least for some people and to some extent, the option par excellence. Before considering the norms of physical beauty ('What are we to conceive of as physically beautiful or not beautiful?'), it may be helpful to consider for a moment the levels of artistic beauty and personal looks, as mentioned above. These refer to a broader context than the narrow, bodily one, reflecting views on the importance of make-up, clothes, fashion and individual self-expression. ### Beauty is Culture Bound In different countries, not all feel the same way about the concept of beauty. In fact, cultures around the world have different ideas of what is beautiful. - **Africa** - they do not celebrate thinness the way other countries do. Famously the country of Mauritania has come to be known as one that idolizes overweight women. This is most often seen as a sign of wealth and fertility - **Brazil** - women want to appear fit and toned, and things like waxing, sculpting massages and manicures are everyday treatment, not only reserved for the spa - **Asia & Africa** - skin lightening has risen in popularity. In order to understand their inherent beauty norms, we should study today's trends and tastes, and their functions and meanings in our lives. In this broader context 'a beautiful appearance' refers to a beauty that is man-made. It is artistic in two respects: (1) it is clearly achieved by 'cultural' means and reflects our present culture, and (2) it expresses someone's personal choice and intentions. Its result is an intentional structuring from an artistic point of view: in short, artistic beauty. ### Physical beauty in which one has an interest In an article on Immanuel Kant's aesthetics, Hannah Ginsborg (1997) shows that according to Kant - beauty can be attached to living things (organisms) as well as to artificial things (works of art). The character of the judgement of beauty is the same in both cases. Moreover, central to Kant's idea of beauty is that beauty gives the observer a feeling of disinterested pleasure or liking. By 'disinterested' he means that the object does not fulfill an aim or satisfy a need. There is, for instance, no 'wish to possess', regardless of whether it is a work of art or a natural object being observed. Finally, according to Kant's view, beauty judgements are not objective, but are nevertheless universal. ### Physical beauty and Personal Identity By assuming an attitude towards our bodily looks we more or less integrate our appearance-related experiences in our lives, and thereby make these experiences part of our personal 'identity'. This notion must be grasped in order to fully understand the concept of physical beauty. Physical beauty is understood as experienced beauty in primarily a relational perspective. Implied is that not just that ugly nose or plain face concerns us, but the story that a person tells about his nose or face or other bodily parts, as experienced by him and others. Stories about reactions from friends and the attitudes of parents; stories about an inherited ethnic nose, or the color of one's skin; stories about one's feelings, perhaps one's suffering, and about expectations for one's future (Freedman, 1986, pp. 49-54). The characterization of a person therefore includes experiences, values and beliefs, desires and psychological qualities, which together constitute someone as a person (Schechtman, 1996). Changing a person's physical looks, e.g. by aesthetic surgery, does not necessarily make someone a different person, no matter how drastic the change. A new sense of identity has to fit the reconstructed image and leave the old self behind: "Altering appearance also changes the way we see ourselves, and this is a crucial consequence of cosmetic surgery" (Freedman, pp. 54, 56). But although 'deep' connections do exist between the physical (biological) and the psychological (existential) realm of life, each undeniably represents a different perspective: "Bodies constrain, but do not determine" (Schechtman, pp. 67-70). Bodily changes may undoubtedly change a person, but these changes do not necessarily imply a denial or loss of his identity. As our physical self, dictates how we act in front of other it also defines how we will manage our self-esteem. Yet this self-esteem is vital on how we form positive and healthy relationships with people around us. We have different kinds of self-esteem. **Self-esteem** is used to describes a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. In other words, how much you appreciate and like yourself. It involves a variety of belief about yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors. - **Inflated Self-Esteem** - this people holds high regards of themselves. Better than the other to the point of underestimating them. - **High Self-Esteem** - This is a positive esteem, which make the person be satisfied of themselves - **Low Self-Esteem** - This person does not value themselves and do not trust their possibilities. ### Why Self-Esteem is Important Self-esteem can play a significant role in your motivation and success throughout your life. Low self-esteem may hold you from succeeding at school or work because you don't believe to be capable of success. By Contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help you achieve because you navigate life with a positive, assertive attitude and believe you can accomplish your goals. **You probably have healthy self-esteem if you are more likely to:** - Avoid dwelling on past, negative experiences - Express your needs - Feel confident - Have a positive outlook on life - Say "no" when you want to - See overall strengths and weaknesses and accept them **You tend to experience these common problems caused by low self-esteem:** - You believe that others are better than you - You find it difficult expressing your needs - You focus on your weaknesses - You frequently experience feelings such as shame, depressions, or anxiety - You have intense fear of failure - You have trouble accepting positive feedback - You have trouble saying "no" - You put other people's needs before your own - You struggle with confidence ## Sexual Self - Lesson 7 ### Introduction Sex makes the world go around: It makes babies bond, children giggle, adolescents flirt, and adults have babies. It is addressed in the holy books of the world's great religions, and it infiltrates every part of society. It influences the way we dress, joke, and talk. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so important, the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram described sex as one of four basic human drive states. Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram, feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives (Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016). Can you guess which drive is the least understood and openly discussed? This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or taboo, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality-including gender, sexual orientation, sexually transmitted diseases, and behaviors. ### Lesson Proper ### Development of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus Females are considered the "fundamental" sex-that is, without much chemical prompting, all fertilized eggs would develop into females. To become a male, an individual must be exposed to the cascade of factors initiated by a single gene on the male Y chromosome. This is called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of the Y chromosome). Because females do not have a Y chromosome, they do not have the SRY gene. Without a functional SRY gene, an individual will be female. In both male and female embryos, the same group of cells has the potential to develop into either the male or female gonads; this tissue is considered bipotential. The SRY gene actively recruits other genes that begin to develop the testes and suppresses genes that are important in female development. As part of this SRY-prompted cascade, germ cells in the bipotential gonads differentiate into spermatogonia. Without SRY, different genes are expressed, oogonia form, and primordial follicles develop in the primitive ovary. Soon after the formation of the testis, the Leydig cells begin to secrete testosterone. Testosterone can influence tissues that are bipotential to become male reproductive structures. For example, with exposure to testosterone, cells that could become either the glans penis or the glans clitoris form the glans penis. Without testosterone, these same cells differentiate into the clitoris. A baby's gender is determined at conception, and the different genitalia of male and female fetuses develop from the same tissues in the embryo. View the video linked to below to see a comparison of the development of structures of the female and male reproductive systems in a growing fetus. Where are the testes located for most of gestational time? ### Further Sexual Development occurs at Puberty Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is predictable for male and female adolescents. As shown in Figure 1, a concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus (GnRH), the anterior pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either testosterone or estrogen) is responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems and the development of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes that serve auxiliary roles in reproduction. The first changes begin around the age of eight or nine when the production of LH becomes detectable. The release of LH occurs primarily at night during sleep and precedes the physical changes of puberty by several years. In pre-pubertal children, the sensitivity of the negative feedback system in the hypothalamus and pituitary is very high. This means that very low concentrations of androgens or estrogens will negatively feed back onto the hypothalamus and pituitary, keeping the production of GnRH, LH, and FSH low. As an individual approaches' puberty, two changes in sensitivity occur. The first is a decrease of sensitivity in the hypothalamus and pituitary to negative feedback, meaning that it takes increasingly larger concentrations of sex steroid hormones to stop the production of LH and FSH. The second change in sensitivity is an increase in sensitivity of the gonads to the FSH and LH signals, meaning the gonads of adults are more responsive to gonadotropins than are the gonads of children. As a result of these two changes, the levels of LH and FSH slowly increase and lead to the enlargement and maturation of the gonads, which in turn leads to secretion of higher levels of sex hormones and the initiation of spermatogenesis and folliculogenesis. ### Signs of Puberty Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute to the development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples of secondary sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1. **Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics** | | *Male* | *Female* | |---|:---:|:---:| | Increased larynx size and deepening of the voice | Increased muscular development | Deposition of fat, predominantly in breasts and hips | | Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and increased growth of body hair | Breast development | Broadening of the pelvis and growth of axillary and pubic hair | As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11 and may last two years or more. During this time, a girl's height can increase 3 inches a year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation. In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately 15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the early growth spurt observed in females, the male height growth spurt occurs toward the end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy's height can increase as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue through the early 20s. ### I. SEXUAL MOTIVATIONS * are vital for the continuation of any species. One of the primary tasks for most living organisms is reproduction. Since humans are one of the most complex living organisms, our sexual motivations are correspondingly complex. Like hunger, sex is motivated by both biological and psychological factors. ### Erogenous Zones - **Breast and Nipples** - Female breasts can obviously play an important role in breastfeeding, but breast and nipple play on anyone can also set off the fireworks of sexual excitement. Using MRI technology, a landmark 2011 study found that nipple stimulation in women activated the genital sensory cortex, the same part of the brain revved by the clitoris, vagina, and cervix. People with a penis have a genital sensory cortex, too, and the penis sends its signals there. - **Mouth and Lips** - Science says we kiss because it floods the body with natural feel-good chemicals like dopamine, oxytocin, and serotonin. These chemicals can fuel desire for our partner by juicing our excitement. - **Neck** - We sometimes refer to the hairs on the back of our neck standing up, and there's a reason for that. It's a highly sensitive region. A 2018 study found it to be a pleasure provoking part across genders, although a bit more arousing in women. - **Ears** - The ear bone is connected to the neck bone... In a 2016 study, females ranked non-genital erogenous zones. The ears came in fourth - behind breasts, lips, and neck. ### Sexual Response Cycle The famous lab studies done by William Masters and Virginia Johnson documented the sexual response cycle in men and women. Our sexual response progresses through four stages: | Stages | | | |---|---|---| | Stage I | *Initial excitement | Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration, and heart rate increase. | | Stage II | *Plateau phase | Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus. | | Stage III | *Orgasm | Rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration, and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria. | | Stage IV | *Resolution phase | Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately. | ### Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation Unlike many animals, our sexual desire is not motivated strictly by hormones. Many studies demonstrate that sexual motivation is controlled to a great extent by psychological rather than biological sources. Sexual desire can be present even when the capability to have sex is lost. Accident victims who lose the ability to have sex still have sexual desires. Erotic material can inspire sexual feelings and physiological responses in men and women, including elevated levels of hormones. The interaction between our physiology and psychology creates the myriad of sexual desires we see in society and ourselves. ### II. SEXUAL ORIENTATION As attention and controversy about sexual-orientation issues increase, so does research about homosexuality. Researchers (like Alfred Kinsey, who documented the variety of human sexual behaviors in the famous Kinsey Reports) have been able to dispel some common myths about what it means to be homosexual. Studies show that homosexuality is not related to traumatic childhood experiences, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents. Although some researchers believe environmental influences probably affect sexual orientation, these factors have not yet been identified. Researchers have identified possible biological influences, however. Some studies indicate that specific brain structures might differ in size in brains of homosexuals when