Chapter 10: Shintoism PDF

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ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Chapter 10: Shintoism “To be fully alive is to have an aesthetic perception of life because a major part of the world's goodness lies in its often unspeakable beauty.” Yukitaka Yamamoto Origins of Shintoism The essence of Shinto is the Japanese devotion to invisible spiritual beings and powers called kami, to shrines, and to various rituals. Shinto is not a way of explaining the world, what matters are rituals that enable human beings to communicate with kami. Kami are not God or gods. They are spirits that are concerned with human beings – they appreciate our interest in them and want us to be happy - and if they are treated properly they will intervene in our lives to bring benefits like health, business success, and good exam results. Shinto is a very local religion, in which devotees are likely to be concerned with their local shrine rather than the religion as a whole. Many Japanese will have a tiny shrine-altar in their homes. However, it is also an unofficial national religion with shrines that draw visitors from across the country. Because ritual rather than belief is at the heart of Shinto, Japanese people don't usually think of Shinto specifically as a religion - it's simply an aspect of Japanese life. This has enabled Shinto to coexist happily with Buddhism for centuries.  The name Shinto comes from Chinese characters for Shen ('divine being'), and Tao ('way') and means 'Way of the Spirits'.  Shrine visiting and taking part in festivals play a great part in binding local communities together.  Shrine visiting at New Year is the most popular shared national event in Japan.  Because Shinto is focused on the land of Japan it is clearly an ethnic religion. Therefore Shinto is little interested in missionary work and rarely practiced  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY outside its country of origin.  Shinto sees human beings as basically good and has no concept of original sin, or of humanity as 'fallen'.  Everything, including the spiritual, is experienced as part of this world. Shinto has no place for any transcendental other world.  Shinto has no canonical scriptures.  Shinto teaches important ethical principles but has no commandments.  Shinto has no founder.  Shinto has no God.  Shinto does not require adherents to follow it as their only religion.  Shinto spirits include Izanami (female who invites) and Izanagi (male who invites)—both are considered the cosmic parent who gave birth to many nature deities; Amaterazu (spirit of the sun); Tsukiyomi (spirit of the moon); Susanowo (spirit of the wind); to the human emperor Jimmu. Important: gods are into family relationship The Historical Development of Shinto  When Mahayana Buddhism came to Japan, Buddhist monks considered Shinto kami as different forms of Mahayana Buddha’s, bodhisattvas, preaching that Buddhist deities were already worshipped in Japan but under Shinto names; at first there was resistance but later both religions’ practices blended;  Contact with China introduced a system of writing in Japan which the Japanese adapted for their own use; this also included Chinese architecture, poetry, ceramics, and art and all sorts of new ideas in philosophy, cuisine, clothing design to city planning.  Despite the enthusiasm for Buddhism as well the aspects of Chinese culture,  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Shinto did not disappear; instead, both religions were mutually accommodating to each other, e.g. Shinto was often associated with agriculture, fertility, and birth, while Buddhism was called on for philosophy, help with serious illnesses funerals, and the afterlife;  Accommodations manifested: 1) Shinto shrines usually had a Buddhist place of worship or had some Buddhist rites for the kami; Buddhist temples often had Shinto shrines on their grounds; 2) Shinto adopted Buddhist practices of preaching sermons, venerating statues, and using incense; 3) Shinto shrines featured Chinese architectural details e.g. tile roofs and red paint;  In the late 9th century, the two religions were forced to separate; the Meiji government propagated the belief that the emperor was a descendant of the founding deities; Shintoism was used to instill patriotism; today however the remnants of the mutual accommodation still are visible;  Confucian values like respect for the emperor, reverence for ancestors and elders, care for juniors, loyalty, discipline, and love of learning which entered Japan were also reinforced by Shinto. Shinto and Japanese National Identity: In the 9th century, Mutsuhito came to the throne and became Emperor Meiji; he modernize Japan, importing European and American experts to create military, governmental, and educational systems modeled on the West; this period was called Meiji Restoration; this time, Shinto was forced to separate from Buddhism; Buddhism suffered persecution as Japan’s leaders stressed the divine origins of the emperor and to tie Shinto to a growing spirit of nationalism; 1882 State Shinto was established comprising of Shinto Shrines funded by the government; those without government support were called Sect Shinto; eventually Shinto was exploited especially during the militaristic expansion of Japan in 1905 after the Russo-Japanese War, to the 1930s in the preparation for WW II; as well as in the educational system; with Japan’s defeat in WWII, Japan was forced to become a secular country, so that the government abolished  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY State Shinto, the emperor renounced his divine status, Shinto shrines turned to a private religion; all religions were considered equal; even then Shinto retains a special place in Japan. Essentials of Shinto Belief  Heart/core belief: sensitivity to mysterious powers of nature; kami of nature are with us in this world; they are the energies that animate nature in trees, waterfalls, mountains, storms, or ocean;  Kami are persons with given names; major kami include Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyomi, Susanowo; lesser kami e.g. spirit of fire, the deity of grain, ocean, mountain, spirits of great trees, rivers, and waterfalls; animal spirits especially those animals with mysterious cunning like the badger, fox, snake.  Ancestors also become kami; they live close by and ready to see how their descendants are faring; as such Shinto is a way of maintaining a connection with family and clan members;  Ancient Shinto rituals and prayers were recorded in the 10th century through the Kojiki (chronicle of ancient events, 712 CE) and the Nihongi (chronicle of Japan, 720 CE);  Shinto has no defined code of ethics but it has a type of value system and life outlook: no notion of guilt, no moralistic God, no original sin or basic sinful tendency; humans are believed to be fundamentally good, the body is good, and this earth life is good; Shinto worships fertility and new life, and sex is viewed positively without guilt; sexual imagery like phallic rocks and wood carvings visible in many shrines.  Unlike many religions, Shinto does not focus so much on death, which is opposite to life and growth; because it worships life forces, it seeks to counteract whatever brings sickness or death; for Shinto, our bodies, houses, and clothes must be kept clean and bright; when they become dirty, get rid of the dirt by washing, sweeping, cleaning, etc.; so does one’s character, it has to be unblemished too, and human relations must be kept healthy; moreover, the  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY human character must have sincerity (Makoto)—it must be pure, without egotism, committed; purity is conserved and restored by fulfilling all obligations, repaying debts, and apologizing for misdeeds;  Reverence for the kami by visiting shrines, and respecting nature.  Formal worship and blessings by priests at shrines; blessings by priest away from the shrine; observances of holidays, the seasons, and nature; everyday practice by individuals in their homes; and the ceremonial practice of Shinto by the Emperor and other authorities; Active shrines have a priest—a job that is frequently hereditary. The Mythic Origins of Shinto Although Shinto does not have a sacred scripture like the Bible or the Quran, it does have two highly revered texts whose origins date back to the 8th century CE. At that time Emperor Temmu was concerned that the already ancient stories of the celestial origins of the imperial line and the Japanese people were being forgotten and might be lost. Temmu ordered the ancient stories committed to memory. The job fell to one his servants, Hiyeda no Are. She learned two by heart: “The Successions of Emperors” and “The Ancient Traditions of the Past Ages.” Temmu’s successor, Empress Gemmyo, ordered that the oral histories be written down. The first volume, the Kojiki, or “Record of Ancient Matters,” was begun under her reign, in 712 CE , to trace the succession of emperors. The Nihongi, or Nihon Shoki (“Chronicles of Japan), completed around 720, tells the story of the divine origins of Japan. These two books contain the foundation of all Shinto beliefs and customs. Other books, detailing the actions of the many Shinto kami (deities), appeared later. The first 10 books of the Engishiki, a compilation of Shinto ceremonies dated to 927, are devoted to the kami and their stories. The versions of the Shinto tales in the different books vary slightly, in much the same way that a story may differ in each Gospel of the Bible. Yet the essential messages about good and evil, life and death are the same. Shinto’s rich mythology tells the story of the heavenly and earthly kami and the creation of the Japanese islands and all creatures and beings on them. It also explains such natural phenomena as night and day  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Confucian Literature and Sources: The Five Classics: These are the basic texts of Confucianism. They are revered because they are China’s oldest literature and, according to tradition, because Confucius edited them. He referred to some of them in his teaching. Modern scholars think that the duke of Zhou (1043-1036 BCE), a great figure of the early Zhou dynasty and Confucius’s ideal ruler, may have written some parts of them. Certainly parts of the Five Classics come from very ancient times, although the texts as they exist today have been added to and modified though the centuries since Confucius lived. 1. The Book of History (Shujing) – is an anthology of supposedly historical material about kings from the earliest times up until the early Zhou period (c. 1100-256 BCE); this is the oldest source of Chinese mythology and history, beginning with the legendary emperors who brought the tools of civilization to the Chinese. The text continues through the Xia, Shang, and early Zhou dynasties (2070 to 256 BCE). It was one of the books that Qin Shi Huangdi destroyed in 213 BCE when legalists persuaded him that the Confucians were his enemies. By tradition scholars of his time preserved it in memory, and it was rewritten during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). The book is sometimes called the Book of Documents, and Confucius himself referred to it that way. This is a more accurate description of its contents, which include decrees, speeches, advice from counselors, and similar reports on government affairs. The Chinese regarded history as the mirror of the present and important in Chinese education and thought; by studying the past one could learn lessons useful for the present. 2. The Book of Poetry (Shijing) – contains the oldest Chinese poetry. It is a collection of more than 300 poems—sometimes called songs because early Chinese poetry was sung—of the Zhou period, once believed to have been selected by Confucius. Over half the poems describe experiences common to all people—love, work, and war. The rest are court poems, including praise of the founders of the Zhou dynasty and hymns used in sacrificial rites. Confucius, who loved to sing, is reputed to have selected the poems for the book. He urged his students to memorize them and he used them in his teaching. 3. The Book of Changes (Yijing) – the book of divination, speaks of the basic  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY patterns of the universe; used to understand future events and to work with them properly; it is an important Confucian document because it tells how the noble person will act in the face of life’s events. The book consists of 64 hexagrams (each being a combination of six broken or unbroken lines) with accompanying interpretations. Later writers added a series of appendices that give further interpretations. Confucius is said to have written some of this material, but this is doubtful. Only once in the Analects does he refer to the Yijing: “Give me a few years and by 50 I shall have studied the book of divination called Changes. Though it I may become free of large faults.” By throwing coins or by manipulating sticks of the yarrow (a plan with magical properties) a petitioner selects any one of two of the hexagrams, and the accompanying text opens up the questioner’s prospects or gives guidance. The 64 hexagrams are formed by a combination of any two of the eight “trigrams” (figures made with three horizontal lines, broken or unbroken) representing Heaven, Thunder, Water, Mountain, Earth, Wind, Fire, and Lake. Through the ages, the Yijing has escaped destruction during book burnings and has enjoyed wide appeal in China, Japan, and more recently in the West as a fortunetelling manual and an aid to meditation and reflection. The Yijing filled a need in Confucian thought that was not met by the other Classics. Early Confucian scholars were concerned with ethical and political problems. However, the Yijing provided a mystical key to the workings of the universe. 4. The Book of Rites (Liji) – lists ancient ceremonies and their meaning; includes the Book of Music; the longest among the three ritual texts, describing government regulations as well as providing instructions on how to manage a household, cook, behave at a dinner party or a funeral, drive a carriage, name a baby, and conduct oneself in everyday life. The Book of Rites as it exists today is not the one that Confucius himself studied. It contains a varied collection of stories and essays compiled during the Han dynasty from earlier writings, including many stories about Confucius’s life. These stories often describe Confucius’s comments on ancient sacrifices, reinterpreting them for a more enlightened age. For example, before Confucius the ancient Chinese believed that by having a living person ascend to the roof of the house and call for the dead to return, the spirits of the dead could be summoned back to their bodies. Objects  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY buried with the dead were originally intended to be used by them in an afterlife. Confucian scholars of Han times wrote that those object merely symbolized the wishes of the living that the dead person could be called back to life. The Book of Rites today describes Confucius as saying: “To treat the dead as dead would show a lack of love and therefore cannot be done; to treat the dead as living would show a lack of wisdom and likewise cannot be done.” Thus the ritual texts describe ways of paying respect so the departed and regulating the emotions of the living so that grief will be appropriate. Parts of the Book of Rituals deal with proper ceremonial form, and they became a handbook for the emperor’s court. One passage declares that if the emperor wore white instead of red (the summer color) in the last month of summer disasters would follow: “High ground would be flooded, the grain in the fields would not ripen, and there would be many miscarriages among women.” 5. The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu) – is a brief chronicle of the events in Confucius’s home state of Lu between the years 722 BCE and 481 BCE. The term spring and autumn is a shortened form of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The officials of the state of Lu compiled it as a season-by-season record of events. Because the end date comes so close to the death of Confucius his followers have often asserted that he was the actual author, using earlier records in the state archives. The text is cryptic and difficult to understand and has been the subject of many commentaries dating back as far as the early Han dynasty. The Four Books: Zhu Xi, the Neo-Confucian thinker of the Song dynasty (960-127 CE) was particularly impressed by two sections of the Book of Rites. He assembled these sections into books now called the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean. To give them added significance Zhu Xi made these two books part of what he called the Four Books. The other two are the Analects and the Meng Zi, or Mencius. Through the influence of the Neo-Confucians, the Four Books became the basis of Chinese education. A student had to memorize them before beginning the study of the Five Classics. From 1313 to 1905 the Four Books were the basis of the examination system that produced officials for China’s government. 1. The Analects – presented as the sayings of Confucius and his followers; mainly his sayings collected by his disciples and followers; written for a period of 200  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY years, being created in layers and subject to regular re-arrangement; 20 sections contain little stories and short sayings; cover a wide variety of topics but often discuss the character of the noble person; 2. The Great Learning – short discussion of the character and influence of the noble person; a chapter from the Book of Rites printed separately since the 13th century CE; the very first book to be memorized and studied by Chinese students; stresses the one must begin with self-cultivation and personal virtue to produce order in the family and the state; The book is said to be written by Confucius’s grandson. Though Confucius’s own son was a disappointment as he did not prove to be a consistent student, his grandson became an important teacher who helped to carry on the sage’s doctrine. The book is more than a guide to self-improvement. It was addressed to the emperor and to the officials who served him (as well as those who aspired to become officials). Thus self- cultivation was carried out for the ultimate goal of good government. It rests on the Confucian idea that before a man can regulate others he must learn to regulate himself. 3. The Doctrine of the Mean – work is taken from the Book of Rites; speaks of the mean or equilibrium; it’s beginning—words “heaven” and “the way”—hints at the mystical side of Confucius; a human being who follows the way of heaven avoids extremes and remains in harmony; this balance unites the individual with the balance of the universe; 4. The Mencius – a long collection of the teachings of Mencius, a Confucian who lived several centuries after Confucius. Confucianism: Basic Outline  Period of social turmoil during time of Confucius due to feudal system disintegration.  Two ideals: 1) produce “excellent” individuals who could be social leaders and 2) create a harmonious society; these two are complementary.  Confucius believed in the natural goodness (refined and great) of individuals,  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY but contra Daoism, did not believe that can be achieved isolated from others; One becomes a full person through others and through the fulfillment of obligations to others including parents, teachers, friends, aunts, uncles, grandparents, ancestors, and even government ministers.  One requirement for people to achieve goodness is good government. Confucius believed that poor government with bad laws cause people to do evil, and that a generation of good rulership could cure most of the moral ills of people. A good example set by the ruling classes will bring out the true morality of people. Because of the natural morality of humanity, Confucius believed that it was unnecessary to offer people rewards or punishments to induce them to good conduct. Good conduct is its own reward. Therefore, whatever Confucius might have believed about the gods, he never spoke of an afterlife in heaven or in hell to reward good deeds or punish evil. Under the proper conditions, people simply grow and develop into what Confucius called the “Superior Man.”  Confucius seems to have believed that, although the gods existed and worship and rituals were of value in bringing people together, these things were of secondary importance to an equitable social order. Praying to the spirits should not interfere with one’s proper social duties. His attitude seems to have been that, ideally, one should respect the spirits but keep them at a distance. Even though Confucius was not an atheist or anti-religious, no evidence suggests that he was interested in starting a religion. Rather, he developed a system of ethics, a theory of government, and a set of personal and social goals that deeply influenced the Chinese for almost 25 centuries.  Personal excellence is needed, more than social interaction. More is from ordinary to excellent human beings, or “superior persons” or noble man (perfect person – junzi or Chun Tzu)  Alfred Bloom: The noble person is “distinguished by his faithfulness, diligence, and modesty. He neither overpowers with his knowledge nor is afraid to admit error. He looks at all sides of any issue, is cautious, and not concerned about personal recognition. Carrying himself with dignity, he  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY appears imperturbable, resolute, and simple. He is exemplary in filial piety and generous with his kin. In his relations with others, he looks for good points, though he is not uncritical. As a leader, he knows how to delegate responsibility and when to pardon or promote. He is sensitive to the feelings and expressions of others.”  Sources of human excellence: Cultivation of virtues and intellect; thus, education is important; education is not simply about the acquisition of intellectual knowledge but also skills in art, poetry, music, manners, religious ritual; education is a transmission of past to present (e.g. great leaders of the past to present); education must lead the way to wisdom and happiness.  Civilization is complicated and fragile; a civilized human being must be full of respect and care; care for the young—the future generation—and the elders, who teach and pass on the traditions; Reverence for everything valuable from the past.  Perfect society: all are cared for and protected; no one feels abandoned The Five-Great Relationships (for Rectification of Names) Confucianism believes that human beings are their relationships; all relationships are not equal determined by personal factors, e.g. friendship or family connection, social factors, e.g. age or social status. Through the Five Great Relationship, social harmony is achieved. 1. Father-Son. Family is the foundation of society, of which the core is the father- son relationship (or parent-child relation). Parents are responsible for the education and moral formation of their children (including choice of a spouse) while children must be respectful and obedient to their parents, and care for them in their old age. Even after death, children must honor their parents’ memory, especially by venerating photos of them at the home altar and by maintaining their graves; parent-child relationship is so fundamental that it is the model for the boss-employee relationship or teacher-student. 2. Elder brother-Younger Brother. The Elder brother must be responsible for  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY raising younger siblings, and the latter must be compliant. Prime example: death of an elderly father. The eldest son assumes parental responsibility. 3. Husband-Wife. Mutual-caring; but relationship is hierarchical. Husband is authoritative protector and wife is protected homemaker and mother; in Confucianism, less romantic expectation that even the wife can become motherly to their husbands. 4. Elder-Younger. Elders have responsibility for the younger; applies to teacher- student, boss-employee, expert-apprentice; version similar to friend-friend relation. 5. Ruler-Subject. Ruler must act like a father, assuming responsibility and care for his subjects like his children. The Five Great Relationships signify that each person must live up to his or her social role and social status. This is called the rectification of names. Social role and title to be consulted to know one’s duty. In Confucian society, the way people see each other is based on their relationships and social roles; good manners therefore, are essential; voice, actions, manner of dress, even posture—that is, etiquette is strictly followed to show respect. Gift-giving is also important in Confucian cultures; gifts soften anxiety but have to be chosen properly: not too personal or too impersonal; not lavish or stingy. Food is a safe choice. Gift wrapping is important. Certificates are given and received carefully, with both hands extended and bowing of head. Bowing varies depending on the occasion. The Confucian Virtues Personal excellence comes from the cultivation of virtues. Note: While Confucianism teaches individuals to develop their unique talents through the love of education and the arts, the most important virtues are largely social virtues. Individual uniqueness is muted, subtle, and considerate of others.  Ren (Jen): To think with the other, as sympathy, empathy, benevolence,  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY humanness, kindness, consideration, thoughtfulness, human-heartedness. (If you want to be kind, be polite—for people who do not know how to be kind.)  Li: Propriety or doing what is appropriate or doing what is proper to the situation: originally related to carrying out rites correctly; use of proper words and actions for social life; Li means good manners; self-control is a sign of strength and practicality.  Shu - Reciprocity: How will my action affect the other person? Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. The Confucian version (Silver Rule) is stated negatively: “Do not do unto others what you would not wish others do unto you.”  Xiao (Hsiao) - Filial piety (Xiaojing): devotion of a son/daughter to a parent; devotion all members have to their entire family’s welfare: a remembrance of ancestors, respect for parents and entire extended family (past, present, future)  Wen: culture, including all the arts associated with civilization; love for poetry and literature, calligraphy, painting, and music; educated person has both knowledge and skill in them; appreciation of beauty in many forms. References Carmody, Denise L. & John T. Carmody. 1993. Ways to the Center: An Introduction to World Religions 4th edition. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Cleary, Thomas (trans.). 1992. The Essential Confucius. New York: Harper San Francisco. Confucius. 1979. The Analects (Lun yü). Trans. with intro. By D.C. Lau. New York: Dorset Press. Hoobler, Dorothy and Thomas. 2009. Confucianism 3rd edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY produce the movement. Who is Lao Tzu (Laozi)? He is the founder of Daoism; which means old master or old child; whether he existed or not is unknown; could be a real person or a mythic creation; he was born in 600 BCE; according to legend, his birth was a result of the virginal conception and was born old, hence, the name old child; became a state archivist or librarian in the royal city of Loyang for many years; tired of his job, left his post and traveled to far west of China carried by an ox; there he was recognized as an esteemed scholar and prohibited from crossing until he has written his teachings; the result was the Daodejing, a short book of about 5,000 Chinese characters; when finished, he left China and traveled westward, probably to India, then later returned to China, and ascended into the sky; soon was treated as a deity, the human incarnation of the Dao; he was called Lord Lao; stories of apparitions abound; worshipped as divine by many Daoists. Sacred Texts The Daodejing or Tao Te Ching  seen as one of the world’s greatest books; a great classic of Daoism accepted as their central scripture; translation: the classical book about the Way and its power; sometimes called Lao Tzu who wrote the book; influenced enormously the Chinese culture because of its brevity and succinctness;  linguistically dated to about 350 BCE but various forms have been circulated; 1972, 1993 ancient versions were found; most commonly known and used is the version from 3rd century CE;  composed of 81 chapters; contains shamanistic elements, e.g. reaching trance states and attaining invulnerability (1, 16, 50, 55); repetitive, no clear order, lacks clarity; each chapter is more poetry than prose; this combination suggests is a combination of work of many people gathered over time; oral proverbs and sayings;  purpose of the book: political, a handbook for rulers; a religious guidebook, source of spiritual insight; a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe; part of the book’s genius is its brevity and use of paradox; the meaning depends on the interpreter.  Dao referred to throughout nature, operation, manner of living of people,  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY any achievement except that of seeking to understand the Tao.  What is the Dao? Beyond description; cannot be put into words although the books use words; it is nameless, cannot be named just like any other object; the Dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name; Dao is the origin of everything and all things are manifestations of the Dao;  Although the origin of nature, the Dao is not God since it does not have a personality; neither cares nor dislikes humans, only produces them along with the rest of nature; it is the way or rhythm of nature since it makes nature move the way it does;  Relinquishment of desires for things needed to experience Dao; adrift, formless; separateness from others and from their conventional way of seeing things; Perceived by intuition, like the difference between hearing musical sounds and recognizing a song; Doctrines of Taoism 1. Wu Wei: the ideal of effortlessness: avoidance of unnecessary action or action that is not spontaneous; look at the effortlessness of nature; nature works to accomplish only what is necessary but no more; e.g. birds 2. Simplicity: eliminate what is unnecessary and artificial and appreciate the simple and the apparently ordinary; as such, Daoists tend to distrust any highly formal education owing to its inherent complexity and artificiality (in contrast to Confucianism): “Give up learning and put an end to your troubles.” Believing that all life originated from the TAO, which would ultimately destroy people’s achievements, the early Taoists turned their backs on civilization with all its ills and benefits and sought to live life simply as possible. The Taoist philosophers may have carried this dream to its greatest extreme. They considered education, wealth, power, and family ties worthless, in fact, impediments to living. Ideally, individuals should turn their backs on the advancements of civilization  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY and live as simply and as quietly as possible. The word innocence characterizes the ideal state. Like the plants and creatures of the earth, innocent human beings are content with what the Tao has ordained for them. According to early Taoist philosophers, there should be little government in the ideal state. In fact, it was an axiom of Taoists that the least government is the best government. Lao-tzu is remembered for saying, “Govern a great nation as you would cook a small fish” – do not overdo it. The small village is the ideal unit of society. The best ruler is the one who rules least and is virtually anonymous. If all this were realized, all striving, quarrels, and wars would cease. Taoism is pacific, not out of any moral commitment to pacifism but because warring is useless and wasteful. If a larger, stronger state wished the territory of the quiet Taoist village, the village should simply submit to the larger state. In the long run, there would be no grief due to this decision and the village ultimately would conquer the largest state with its humility. The early Taoists looked upon the innocence of the child as an ideal toward which all human beings should strive. The infant knows no craft and has no ambitions but to live; yet the child is cared for, fed, and clothed. The weakness and softness of the infant are the ideals of Taoism. 3. Ying and Yang/Law of Reversion. “In searching for a principle to explain the true nature of the universe, the ancient Chinese philosophers developed the concept of the yin and the yang. What made the universe operate the way it did was understood to be a balance between these two forces. The yin was the negative force in nature. It was seen in darkness, coolness, females, dampness, the earth itself, the moon, and the shadows. The yang was the positive force in nature. It was seen in lightness, brightness, warmth, maleness, dryness, and the sun. The interaction between yin and yang was understood as one of the factors in the operation of the universe. Except for a few objects, such as the sun or the earth, which were clearly yin and yang, all the rest of nature, humankind, and even events were a combination of both forces. When these two forces were at work in harmony, life was what it should be.” Yin and yang are so bound together that pure yin and pure yang ultimately reverse. Reversions of forces are a dynamic law of Tao, a mysterious property of the  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY Still, most scholars date the start of Hindu religion to around 3,500 to 4,000 years ago, when Aryan cattle herders from Central Asia invaded what is now India. The agricultural people already living in the Indus Valley were more sophisticated than most civilizations and had ritual practices and beliefs of their own, including devotion to the phallic deity Shiva. The arrival of the nomadic Aryans brought another set of beliefs—including hymns and rituals known as the Vedas. The traditions of both groups blended as the Indus Valley civilizations began to move southward, settling in the fertile region surrounding the Ganges River. During this period, written versions of the sacred traditions appeared, including the Rig Veda, which was composed between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Its more than one thousand hymns are the oldest religious scriptures in the world.” SACRED TEXTS 1. Vedas 2. Upanishads 3. Bhagavad-Gita The Vedas “The Vedas, which originally were preserved only in oral form but eventually were written down, are the earliest sacred books of Hinduism. The name means ‘knowledge’ or ‘sacred lore,’ and related words in English are vision and wisdom. Although scholars date the earliest versions of the Vedas to about 1500 BCE, Hindus consider them to be far more ancient. They say that the Vedas were revealed to rishis (holy men of the distant past), who did not create the Vedas but heard them and transmitted them to later generations. There are four basis sacred text collections that constitute the Vedas. The Rig Veda (‘hymn knowledge’) is a collection of more than a thousand chants to the Aryan gods; the Yajur Veda (‘ceremonial knowledge’) contains matter for recitation during sacrifice; the Sama Veda (‘chant knowledge’) is a handbook of musical elaborations of Vedic chants; and the Atharva Veda (‘knowledge from [the teacher] Atharva’) consists of practical prayers and charms, such as prayers to protect against snakes and sickness.  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHYThe Rig Veda, the most important of the Vedas, has an account of the origin of the universe. The universe is said to have emerged from a division and cosmic sacrifice of a primeval super person, Purusha. But the account includes an admission of uncertainty: ‘who knows if for certain; who can proclaim it here; namely, out of what it was born and wherefrom his creations issued? The gods appeared only later—after the creation of the world. Who knows, then, out of what it has evolved?’ The term Vedas sometimes indicates only these four collections. In its more common use, it also refers to some later material as well. Detailed ceremonial rules, called Brahmanas and Aranyakas, were added by later generations to each of the four Vedic collections. The Brahmanas, named for the priests who would use them, give details about the proper time and place for ceremonies, the preparation of the ground, ritual objects, and purification rites. The Aranyakas (‘forest books’) allowed the rituals to be understood and practiced in nonliteral, symbolic ways by men who had left society and become ascetics in the forests. The four Vedas end with even later works, called the Upanishads, which express philosophical and religious ideas that arose in introspective and meditative traditions. The Upanishads “After many centuries, questioning of Vedic religious beliefs and practices began to emerge with strength. It is possible that earlier religious disciplines reasserted themselves, and there may have been resentment against the priestly class. Some critics questioned the value of the Vedic sacrifices, and we know from the Aranyakas that certain people abandoned social life to live alone in the forests, giving themselves much time for thought and religious experimentation. Thinkers questioned the ancient belief in many gods, seeking instead a single divine reality that might be the source of everything. Some went even further and saw all things as being mystically united. And a few rejected religious ritual altogether. During this period there seems to have been interest in all sorts of techniques for altering consciousness, such as sitting for long periods in meditation, breathing deeply, fasting avoiding sexual activity, practicing long periods of silence, going without sleep, experimenting with psychedelic plants, and living in the darkness of caves. People of any social class—not just priests—could do all these things. Evidence of this intellectual ferment and the practice of spiritual disciplines are recorded in the Upanishads. The Upanishads comprise about a hundred written works that record insights into  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY Table 3.1 Major Hindu Gods Brahma god of creation Vishnu god of preservation Shiva god of destruction and re-creation Devi goddess, Divine Mother Durga goddess of perseverance Lakshmi goddess of success Kali goddess of destruction and re-creation Saraswati goddess of music and culture Krishna loving manifestation of Vishnu Rama royal manifestation of Vishnu Ganesha elephant-headed son of Shiva, prayed to for success The Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva Three gods have been particularly important in the devotional and artistic life of Hinduism. Although of differing origins, they have sometimes been linked together— particularly in philosophy and art, where they represent the three forces of creation, preservation, and destruction. The three gods are Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. When linked together, they are often called the Trimurti, which means ‘triple form.’ Brahma represents the creative force that made the universe. He is considered the personal aspect of Brahman and has been thought of as the special patron of the priestly class, the brahmins. Brahma is commonly depicted as an ancient, thoughtful king sitting on a throne. He has four faces, each looking in one of the four directions, and eight arms, each holding symbols of power. His companion animal is a white goose. In India, worship of Brahma as a separate deity has declined over the past two hundred years, although he is still frequently represented in art, where he is pictured beside Vishnu or Shiva. Perhaps this decline in interest resulted from the popular view of Brahma in India as grandfatherly, distant, and less powerful than either Vishnu or Shiva. (Ironically, however, devotion to Brahma remains quite alive in Thailand, where local Buddhist practice shows many influences from Hinduism. Statues of Brahma appear frequently in outdoor ‘spirit houses,’ where food and flowers—and sometimes dance— are offered to him for good luck and protection.)  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY Vishnu represents the force of preservation in the universe. In the Vedas he is a god associated with the sun, although his role there appears to be small. Thought of as light and warmth that destroys darkness, Vishnu grew in stature until finally becoming a major god of Hinduism. Today Vishnu (in various forms) is the most important object of devotion in India, and about three quarters of all Hindus in India worship him or his manifestations. His followers are called Vaisnavites (or Vaishnavas). In painting and sculpture, Vishnu is shown in many forms, though usually with a tall crown and a regal manner. Almost always he has four arms, which hold symbols of power. His companion animal is a great eaglelike bird, Garuda, on whom he flies through the universe. Because Vishnu is associated with loving-kindness, it is believed that he can appear on earth at different times and in various physical forms to help those in need. Ten major incarnations (or avatars) of Vishnu are commonly listed, of which one is still to appear. Some previous incarnations were in animal form: a fish, a boar, and a tortoise. Another was Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha—an intriguing inclusion, which helped Hinduism partially reabsorb Indian Buddhism…. The incarnation yet to come will be a savior figure on horseback who will judge the human race. Two incarnations of Vishnu are wildly popular—Rama and Krishna. Shiva, the third of the Trimurti and the god linked with destruction, is the most complicated of the gods, both in origin and in conception. Sitting in yogic meditation posture, the horned figure that is found on seals from the Harappa period may be an early form of Shiva, meaning that some aspects of the present-day god may extend back to pre-Vedic India. Another early form is apparently in the Vedic god Rudra, a dangerous god of mountains and winds, whom worshipers probably began to call shiva (‘lucky’) in order to neutralize the fear he inspired. In later times, however, his link with destructiveness is often shown in pictures of Shiva appearing at cremation grounds above a human body that is dissolving in flames. Shiva’s connection with destruction may be hard for many non-Hindus to appreciate. In some religions, destruction is associated with divine punishment for wrongdoing. In Hinduism, however, destruction is considered to be simply another part of the divine energy at work in the world. Destruction is a type of recycling, the necessary loss of form,  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY1. Dharma-duty 2. Kama-pleasure 3. Artha-wealth 4. Moksha-liberation 5. Brahman and Atman THE FOUR AIMS OF LIFE Hinduism is a most practical religion, complete with purposes for living. What are these goals? They are presented in a doctrine called the Four Ends of Life. Each of these aims prescribes a value or manner of conduct that is a piece of a larger moral view. Each is therefore appropriate for a proper Hindu upbringing. While the four are emphasized at different stages of life, one reigns above the rest: dharma.” ARTHA “Artha signifies material prosperity and achieving worldly well-being. The word signifies the whole range of tangible object that can be possessed, enjoyed, and lost, and which we require in our lives for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family, and discharge of religious duties. Wealth and material well-being is not its own end; rather, it is a means to an enriched life. Success in the stage of artha helps us support a household and discharge our civic duties. But there are limitations: Success here is private, not cooperative. There is another problem: Wealth, fame, and power do not survive death and are, therefore, ephemeral. KAMA Kama, the second aim of life, has to do with fun, but more generally, pleasure. In Indian mythology, Kama is the counterpart of Cupid; he is the Hindu god of love. Kama refers to the emotional being of a person, their feelings and desires. According to Indian philosophy, people who are denied their emotional lives and the fulfillment of pleasurable desires are repressed and live under a continual strain. All of this is ruinous to their sanity and well-being. The principal surviving classic of India’s kama teaching is Vatsayana’s celebrated Kama Sutra. The work is more or less a textbook for lovers and courtesans. In an environment of arranged marriages, there were plenty of dull and painful households where a perusal of the Kama Sutra would come in handy.  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY DHARMA The third of the four aims, dharma, includes, in essence, the sum and substance of the religious and moral duties that comprise our righteousness. Indian literature contains rituals and numerous social regulations of the three upper castes—Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (noble), and Vaishya (merchant and agriculturist)—meticulously formulated according to the teaching of Creator himself (in the Vedas). Dharma is the doctrine of the duties and rights of each group and person in the ideal society, and as such, the law or mirror of all moral action. Ethical life is the means to spiritual freedom, as well as its expression on earth. At this stage, the individual directs his energy toward helping others, but this service is also finite and so will come to an end. MOKSHA What people really want is found in the fourth aim, which is spiritual release. The chief end of humanity is the full development of the individual. The Upanishad tells us that there is nothing higher than people, but people are not mere assemblages of body, life, and mind born of and subject to physical nature. The natural half-animal being is not a person’s whole or real being; it is but the instrument of the use of spirit that is the truth of their being. It is the ultimate aim, the final good, and as such is set over and above the other three. Artha, kama, and dharma are the pursuits of the world; each implies its own orientation or life philosophy, and to each a special literature is dedicated. What is MOKSHA? “The term moksha means ‘freedom’ or ‘liberation’ and comes from a root that means ‘to be released.’ In the Upanishads, moksha is the ultimate human goal. It has various connotations. Moksha certainly includes the notion of getting beyond egotistic responses, such as resentment and anger, which limit the individual. Furthermore, unlike the modern ideal of seeking complete freedom to satisfy one’s individual desires, moksha implies liberation even from the limitations of being an individual—from being born a particular person at a specific time to a unique pair of parents—a person with distinct  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY physical characteristics, emotions, desires, and memories. One can take action to overcome these restrictions (for example, by leaving home), which is sometimes a means of attaining moksha, but one can also accept the limitations even while living with them, thereby gaining inner peace and mental freedom. As one becomes freer, one looks at life less from a selfish and egotistic point of view and more from a perspective that embraces the whole. The unity and sacredness that everything shares become a part of everyday experience. Kindness to all—to animals as well as to people— is one natural result of this insight, and kind actions also generate helpful karma. Detaching oneself from pleasure or pain is another practice that leads to freedom from egotism. Ultimately, with enough insight and ascetic practice, the individual can go entirely beyond the limited self to know the sacred reality that everything shares. When insight and kindness are perfect, at last the pain of rebirth ends; the limitations of individuality are gone, and only Brahman remains. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad explains complete freedom: ‘when all have become Spirit, one’s own Self, how and whom could one see?’ The Upanishads, though sometimes obscure, are devoted to promoting an insight into ultimate oneness. But the Upanishads do not give detailed instructions for achieving that kind of insight or for living spiritually in the everyday world. Such guidance would have to be developed by later Hindu commentators and practitioners.” BRAHMAN AND ATMAN “The term Brahman originally stood for the cosmic power present in the Vedic sacrifice and chants, over which the priest had control. (The Sanskrit word Brahman is neuter and comes from a stem meaning ‘to be great.’) In the Upanishads the word Brahman was expanded to mean a divine reality at the heart of things. One of the most famous dialogues appears in the Chandogya Upanishad. It involves a priestly father and his son in discussion. The young man, Shvetaketu, has been away, studying with a specialist for many years. He has memorized chants and learned priestly rituals. The young man’s father questions him about what he has learned, and the son proudly recites the formulas he knows. The father then asks him what he knows about Brahman, the Supreme Spirit; but the young man knows nothing. Trying to assist the son’s understanding, the father asks his son to fill a glass with water, put salt in it, and leave it overnight. The next day  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail:[email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Philosophy PHILOSOPHY The caste system receives further religious approval in the Bhagavad Gita, which recognizes that there are different types of people and that their ways to perfection will differ, depending on their personality types and roles in society. For example, active people will perfect themselves through the unselfishness of their work, and intellectual people will perfect themselves through teaching and study. Traditionally, the caste system was based on more than one’s type of work, and in modern times it does not always indicate the type of work a person does. Castes (as the term is commonly used) are really social classes (varna), which are subdivided into hundreds of subcastes. The caste system dissuades members of different castes, and often subcastes, from intermarrying. It remains strongest in the countryside and in more conservative southern India, but it is weakening in the cities, where people regularly eat together in restaurants and travel together on buses and trains. Although an individual cannot change the caste into which she or he is born, it is believed that a good life in one’s present caste will guarantee rebirth in a higher caste or better circumstances. Thus, from the perspective of Hinduism, upward social mobility is possible—even if it takes more than one lifetime to accomplish! Members of society are divided into five main social classes: 1. The priest (brahmin) traditionally performs Vedic rituals and acts as a counselor. 2. The warrior-noble (Kshatriya) has the role of protecting society. This is the traditional caste of the aristocracy. 3. The merchant (Vaishya) class includes landowners, moneylenders, and sometimes artisans. Males of the three upper castes (Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya) receive a sacred cord during a ceremony in their youth and afterward are called ‘twice-born.’ 4. The peasant (shudra) does manual labor and is expected to serve the higher castes. The origin of this caste probably goes back to the Aryan subjection of native people, who were forced to do the work of servants. The peasant is called ‘once-born.’ 5. The untouchable (dalit) traditionally does the dirtiest work—cleaning toilets, sweeping streets, collecting animal carcasses, and tanning animal hides. This caste’s low status prompted the Indian reformer Mohandas Gandhi to promote another name for the class— Harijan (‘children of God’)—and he urged their inclusion in regular society. Present-day India has laws and rules to help overcome discrimination against untouchables.”  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY other words, the Buddha’s final instruction was this: Trust your own insights, and use self-control to reach perfection and inner peace. Following this pronouncement, the Buddha turned on his right side and died. The many sculptures and paintings of the so- called Reclining Buddha may be images of his serene moment of death. In any case, Buddhists idealize the Buddha’s attitude toward death as a model for everyone. The Four Noble Truths "I teach suffering, its origin, cessation, and path. That's all I teach", declared the Buddha 2500 years ago. The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under the Bodhi tree. 1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha) 2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya) 3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha) 4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga) The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths, he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realization that there is a cure. The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release from suffering. The First Noble Truth Suffering (Dukkha) Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the first three sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside his palace: old age, sickness, and death. But according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper. Life is not ideal: it frequently fails to live up to our expectations. Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these desires, the satisfaction is only temporary. Pleasure does not last; or if it does, it becomes monotonous. Even when we are not suffering from outward causes like illness or bereavement, we are unfulfilled and unsatisfied. This is the truth of  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY suffering. Some people who encounter this teaching may find it pessimistic. Buddhists find it neither optimistic nor pessimistic, but realistic. Fortunately, Buddha's teachings do not end with suffering; rather, they go on to tell us what we can do about it and how to end it. The Second Noble Truth Origin of suffering (Samudāya) Our day-to-day troubles may seem to have easily identifiable causes: thirst, pain from an injury, sadness from the loss of a loved one. In the second of his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha claimed to have found the cause of all suffering - and it is much more deeply rooted than our immediate worries. The Buddha taught that the root of all suffering is desire, tanhā. This comes in three forms, which he described as the Three Roots of Evil, the Three Fires, or the Three Poisons. The three roots of evil These are the three ultimate causes of suffering:  Greed and desire, represented in art by a rooster  Ignorance or delusion, represented by a pig  Hatred and destructive urges, represented by a snake The Third Noble Truth Cessation of suffering (Nirodha) The Buddha taught that the way to extinguish desire, which causes suffering, is to liberate oneself from attachment. This is the third Noble Truth - the possibility of liberation. The Buddha was a living example that this is possible in a human lifetime. The Fourth Noble Truth Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga) The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a set of principles called the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in his search for enlightenment. THE EIGHTFOLD PATH - “The Middle Way” The Middle Way, or the Noble Eightfold Path, is the roadmap for Buddhist living. There are three sections of the Path that contain the eight ‘right’ or ‘wise’ ways to be, and each section is a platform for the next in a continuous process. The Path: 1. Right Action 2. Right Speech 3. Right Livelihood 4. Right Effort 5. Right Concentration 6. Right Mindfulness 7. Right View 8. Right Resolve The Buddha uses the word right in the way we would say something is appropriate. The Buddha is not prescribing or proscribing specific actions because appropriate action depends on context. These right approaches stem from directly experiencing which actions lead to happiness and which actions lead to misery. The Eightfold Path is divided into three categories. They are: 1. Morality (Sila) 2. Meditation (Samadhi) 3. Wisdom (Prajna) Morality includes numbers one, two, and three: right speech, right action, and right livelihood. Meditation is made up of the middle three steps (four, five, and six): right effort, right concentration, and right mindfulness. And finally, Wisdom is comprised of the numbers seven and eight: right view and right resolve. The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to Inner Peace. The eight ‘steps’ of the path actually form a program that the Buddha taught that will lead us toward liberation  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY from the impermanence and suffering of reality. Together, they describe three main goals: to face life objectively, to live kindly, and to cultivate inner peace. Although they are often called ‘steps,’ the eight recommendations are not to be practiced sequentially but rather altogether. As it is usually translated, the Noble Eightfold Path sounds so old-fashioned that readers may not immediately perceive its practicality. But keep in mind that the world right in the following list is a translation of a word that might better be translated as correct or complete. 1. Right understanding: I recognize the impermanence of life, the mechanism of desire, and the cause of suffering. 2. Right intention: My thoughts and motive are pure, not tainted by my emotions and selfish desires. 3. Right speech: I speak honestly and kindly, in positive ways, avoiding lies, exaggeration, and harsh words. 4. Right action: My actions do not hurt any other being that can feel hurt, including animals; I avoid stealing and sexual conduct that would bring hurt. 5. Right work: My job does no harm to myself or others. 6. Right effort: With moderation, I consistently strive to improve. 7. Right meditation (right mindfulness): I use the disciplines of meditation (dhyana) and focused awareness to contemplate the nature of reality more deeply. 8. Right contemplation: I cultivate states of blissful inner peace (samadhi).” Sacred Texts The fundamental teachings were collected into their final form around the 3rd century BCE, after a Buddhist council at Patna in India. The teachings were written down in Sri Lanka during the 1st century CE. They were written in Pali (a language like Sanskrit) and are known as the Pali canon. It's called the Tipitaka – the three baskets. The three sections are: The Vinaya Pitaka (the code for monastic life) - These rules are followed by Buddhist monks and nuns, who recite the 227 rules twice a month. The Sutta Pitaka (teachings of the Buddha) - Contains a whole of Buddhist philosophy and ethics. It includes the Dhammapada which contains the essence of  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Buddha's teaching. The Abhidamma Pitaka (supplementary philosophy and religious teaching) - The texts have remained unaltered since they were written down. Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition consider it important to learn sections of these texts by heart. Although these texts are accepted as definitive scriptures, non-Buddhists should understand that they do not contain divine revelations or absolute truths that followers accept as a matter of faith. They are tools that individual tries to use in their own life. Nirvana: Ultimate goal of man The ultimate goal of Buddhism is nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: nibbana). The term nirvana suggests many things: end of suffering, inner peace, and liberation from the limitations of the world. The word nirvana seems to mean ‘blown out,’ or ‘cool,’ suggesting that the fires of desire have been extinguished. Upon attaining nirvana, the individual has self-control and is no longer driven from inside by raging emotional forces or from outside by the unpredictable events of life. It may not necessarily imply the elimination of anger (stories tell of the Buddha’s getting angry at disputes within the monastic community), but it does suggest a general inner quiet. Nirvana is also believed to end karma and rebirth after the present life…. To reach nirvana, Buddhism recommends following the Noble Eightfold Path. Theravada Buddhism Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar). It is sometimes called 'Southern Buddhism'. The name means 'the doctrine of the elders' - the elders being the senior Buddhist monks. This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the original teachings of the Buddha. However, it does not over-emphasize the status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way - they are seen as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having the merit of their own. Theravada beliefs  The Supernatural: Many faiths offer supernatural solutions to the spiritual  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY problems of human beings. Buddhism does not. The basis of all forms of Buddhism is to use meditation for awakening (or enlightenment), not outside powers.  Supernatural powers are not disregarded but they are incidental and the Buddha warned against them as fetters on the path.  The Buddha: Siddhartha Gautama was a man who became Buddha, the Awakened One - much in the same way as Jesus became Christ. Since his death, the only contact with him is through his teachings which point to the awakened state.  God: There is no omnipotent creator God of the sort found in Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. Gods exist as various types of spiritual beings but with limited powers.  The Path to Enlightenment: Each being has to make their own way to enlightenment without the help of God or gods. Buddha's teachings show the way, but making the journey is up to us. Law of Dependent Origination The Law of Dependent Origination is one of the most important teachings of the Buddha, and it is also very profound. The Buddha has often expressed His experience of Enlightenment in one of two ways, either in terms of having understood the Four Noble Truths or in terms of having understood the nature of the dependent origination. However, more people have heard about the Four Noble Truths and can discuss them than the Law of Dependent Origination, which is just as important. Although the actual insight into dependent origination arises with spiritual maturity, it is still possible for us to understand the principle involved. The basis of dependent origination is that life or the world is built on a set of relations, in which the arising and cessation of factors depend on some other factors which condition them. This principle can be given in a short formula of four lines: When this is, that is This arising, that arises When this is not, that is not This ceasing, that ceases.  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY On this principle of interdependence and relativity rests the arising, continuity, and cessation of existence. This principle is known as the Law of Dependent Origination in Pali, Paticcasamuppada. This law emphasizes an important principle that all phenomena in this universe are relative, conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions. A phenomenon arises because of a combination of conditions that are present to support its arising. And the phenomenon will cease when the conditions and components supporting its arising change and no longer sustain it. The presence of these supportive conditions, in turn, depends on other factors for their arising, sustenance, and disappearance. The Concept of Impermanence Early Buddhism dealt with the problem of impermanence in a very rational manner. This concept is known as anicca in Buddhism, according to which, impermanence is an undeniable and inescapable fact of human existence from which nothing that belongs to this earth is ever free. Buddhism declares that there are five processes over which no human being has control and which none can ever change. These five processes are namely, the process of growing old, of not falling sick, of dying, of decay of things that are perishable, and of the passing away of that which is liable to pass. Buddhism however suggests that escape from these is possible and it's through Nirvana. Thus early Buddhism declares that in this world there is nothing that is fixed and permanent. Everything is subject to change and alteration. "Decay is inherent in all component things," declared the Buddha and his followers accepted that existence was a flux, and a continuous becoming. According to the teachings of the Buddha, life is comparable to a river. It is a progressive moment, a successive series of different moments, joining together to give the impression of one continuous flow. It moves from cause to cause, effect to effect, from one point to another, one state of existence to another, giving an outward impression that it is one continuous and unified movement, whereas, in reality, it is not. The river of yesterday is not the same as the river of today. The river of this moment is not going to be the same as the river of the next moment. So does life. It changes continuously and becomes something or the other from moment to moment.  ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY Km7 Central ParkBlvd, Talomo, 8016Davao City, Philippines Tel No. +63 (82) 221.2411 local 8608 E-Mail: [email protected] * www.addu.edu.ph In Consortium with Ateneo de Zamboanga University and Xavier University SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – PHILOSOPHY Mahayana Buddhism The term Mahayana was first mentioned in the Lotus Sutra (among the final teachings of Buddha Sakyamuni) at an indeterminate date between the 5th and 1st century CE. However, according to recent scholarship, it may have been a mistaken term because instead of 'yana' meaning 'vehicle' or 'cart,' it could have been 'mahajãna,' 'jãna' meaning 'knowing,' therefore 'great (maha) knowing.' In this era, the Dharma, (Pali: Dhamma), the natural law of all existence according to Buddhism, was no longer regarded as a doctrinal element but as a medicine that would heal all worldly suffering. Mahayana Buddhism is prevalent in north Asia having spread from northern India, then to Tibet and Central Asia, China, Korea, and lastly Japan. Due to the cultural influences and diversity of countries, the scope of Buddhist practice has widened even more to include Tantric practices (Tantra meaning techniques to reach Enlightenment more quickly) and Shamanism (a shaman is an intermediary who has access to the world of spirits and healing) from central Asia; Taoism and Confucianism giving rise to the Ch’an school of contemplation in China and Korea, which developed eventually into Japanese Zen, and so on. Mahayana beliefs The main tenets of Mahayana Buddhism are compassion (karuna) and insight or wisdom (prajna). The perfection of these human values culminates in the Bodhisattva, a model being who devotes himself or herself altruistically to the service of others, putting aside all self-serving notions; in contrast, is the preceding pursuit of self- interested liberation (Hinayana or Sravakayana). Bodhisattva (Skt; Pali: Bodhisatta) means an enlightened being or one who is oriented to enlightenment. This ideal human being is inspired by the life story of Buddha Sakyamuni who began by generating the wish to attain enlightenment for the sake of all beings in the form of a vow. Then he embarked on religious life by cultivating the Six Perfections (paramitas). Mahayana goes beyond the core doctrine contained in the Theravada Tipitaka in several important respects. It accepts as canonical other sutras not in the Tipitaka; this literature is known as the B