Hockett's Language Features PDF

HOCKETT’S LANGUAGE FEATURES WHAT ARE HOCKETT’S LANGUAGE FEATURES?  A set of rules, chosen by Charles F. Hockett, that defines human communication and set it apart from animal communication. In other words, the features help us differentiate between human language and animal c...

HOCKETT’S LANGUAGE FEATURES WHAT ARE HOCKETT’S LANGUAGE FEATURES?  A set of rules, chosen by Charles F. Hockett, that defines human communication and set it apart from animal communication. In other words, the features help us differentiate between human language and animal communication. WANNA KNOW THE FEATURES? Let’s get started! 1. Vocal-auditory Channel The human language usually occurs vocally. The main idea of the human language is hearing/speaking.  2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception When one is speaking, the sounds he produces are being transmitted to all directions. However, listeners perceive the sounds from the direction the sounds come from. We can see it with signs too. When one is signing, he signs to anyone within the line of sight, and they can all see him signing.  3. Transitoriness (Rapid fading) Once we speak, the sound doesn’t exist anymore. The sound waves we create while speaking vanish quickly after we stop using speech language. How sound fades:  4. Interchangeability Humans are not limited to a certain type of signal. They can send and perceive identical linguistic signals. Individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. For example: Tom and Perry are having a little talk. Tom says, “I’m a very funny man”. Perry can also say, “I’m a very funny man”. “Cayotes can neither howl or listen to howls.”  5. Total feedback A speaker can control, modify and feel what he says, as he says it. It goes for signals as well. Users of a language can perceive what they are transmitting and can make corrections if they make errors. Apes can hear themselves call. Bees don’t see their own dances.  6. Specialization Human sign each other in order to communicate, not to perform a biological task. The Direct-energetic consequences of linguistics signals are usually biologically trivial; only the triggering effects. Speech does little in terms of helping us eat. Its only use for talking. An example: A dog pants sometimes to communicate with its owner, however dog pants in order to cool itself, so he has a biological purpose.  7. Semanticity Specific signals that match specific meanings. There are associative ties between signal elements and features in the world; in short, some linguistic forms have denotations. Our words actually refer to things, not just emotions or states. An example: ‘er’ at the end of a word is usually a sign for a man with a certain profession, such as: painter, writer, photographer.  8. Arbitrariness Mostly there is no connection between the sign and it’s meaning. In other words, the words we use don’t match the objects they represent.  9. Discreetness There are basic units of speech, which can be categorized. The words are perceived categorizing, and not continuously. Messages in the system are made up of smaller, repeatable parts; the sounds of language (or cheremes of a sign) are perceived categorically, not continuously. /k/+ /ae/ + /t/ = “cat” /t/ + /ae/ + /k/ = “tack”  10. Displacement Humans can talk about things that are not currently happening, such as future, past and objects. The human speech is not limited to here and now. Linguistic messages may refer to things remote in time and space, or both, from the site of the communication. An example: “The singer will visit Dublin on May 2019, last time he visited was last June.”  11. Productivity Through speech language a speaker is able to form a new sentence.  11. Productivity Users can create and understand completely novel messages. - In a language, new messages are freely coined by blending, analogizing from, or transforming old ones. This says that every language has grammatical patterning. - In a language, either new or old elements are freely assigned new semantic loads by circumstances and context. This says that in every language new idioms constantly come into existence.  11. Productivity Language makes infinite use of finite means. At every level of the analysis of language (phonology, morphology, and syntax), we find: - A finite set of elements (phonemes, morphemes, grammatical classes) - Combined through a finite set of rules (phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules) - To generate an infinite number of possibilities  12.Traditional transmission Although language capabilities is innate, language is learned by social settings. Children learn to speak through interacting with language speaker. 13. Cultural transmission The conventions of a language are learned by interacting with more experienced users. Dialect differences among birdsong.  14. Duality of patterning Meaningful words are combined of small meaningful units that are combined of small meaningless units. A large number of meaningful elements are made up of a conveniently small number of meaningless but message- differentiating elements.  14.Prevarication The ability to lie and deceive using speech language. Linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or meaningless. 15. Reflexiveness Humans can use speech language in order to talk about language. In a language, one can communicate about communication. Example: The whole field of researching Linguistics is reflexive.  16. Learnability Language is both teachable, and learnable. It can be taught, and it could be learned. A speaker of a language can learn another language. A presentation on Human Language vs. Animal Communication  What is Human Language? Human language consists of a lexicon and a grammar. Design features of human language: Semanticity Cultural transmission Pragmatic function Arbitrariness Interchangeability Discreteness Displacement Productivity  Animal Language Animals can convey various message to each other, such as: Feelings (anger, fear), warnings, desire/ willingness to mate, location of food sources, nonetheless animals lack anything like human language. Honeybee Dance Dance to communicate Dance communicates direction and distance to food source Not entirely arbitrary Honeybee Dance  Question How does the dance indicate direction? How does the dance indicate distance? Birds Case Some birds can imitate human speech. Is this language? cannot learn structure cannot create novel utterances imitate sounds regardless of source  Dogs Case Dogs learn to understand certain commands. Most famous dog (concerning language) is Chaser. learned more than 1,000 nouns (for toys) performs basic actions in response to commands consisting of a verb (paw, nose, take) and a noun demonstrated power of deduction when asked to find novel object  Communication The exchange of feelings, thoughts, information, news, feelings, thoughts, information and news between people, in every conceivable form and way, from person to person is called communication. For communication to take place, the information to be transmitted must be understood by both the sender and the receiver. Animals communicate using signals, which can include visual; auditory, or sound-based; chemical, involving pheromones; or tactile, touch-based, cues. When we talk about distinctions between human language and animal communication, we are considering both in terms of their potential for intentional communication.  Talking to Animals Because of these properties that make human language complex, animals cannot understand human language. However, there are some exceptions like riders can say "Whoa!" to horses and they stop and a variety of circus animals go up, down and roll over in response to spoken commands. Animals produces a particular behavior in response to a sound stimulus, but does not actually “understand” what the noise means.  Chimpanzees and Animals The genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees let to studies on teaching chimpanzees human language. In the 1930s, two scientists reported on their experience of raising an infant chimpanzee together with their baby son. The chimpanzee, called Gua was reported to be able to understand about a hundred words, but did not “say” any of them. In the 194os, a chimpanzee named Viki was reared by another scientist couple in their own home, as if she was a human child. These foster parents spent five years attempting to get Viki to “say” English words by trying to shape her mouth as she produced sounds.  Chimpanzees and Animals Viki eventually managed to produce some words, rather poorly articulated versions of mama, papa, and cup. In retrospect, this was a remarkable achievement since it has become clear that non-human primates do not actually have a physically structured vocal tract that is suitable for articulating the sounds used in speech. Chimpanzees have shown the ability to communicate using ASL to human observers and other chimpanzees about the normal course of surrounding events. They use signs to create natural language categories; for example, they will sign “dog” when shown many different species of dogs and “shoe” whether it be a slipper or a cowboy boot. They can invent new signs and combine signs to metaphorically express something different, for example: calling a radish “cry hurt food” or referring to a watermelon as a “drink fruit”. They can comprehend and produce novel prepositional phrases, understand vocal English, translate words into ASL and even transmit their signing skills to the next generation without human intervention.  Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication Similarity: Both are composed of SIGNS (forms with meaning) Six Key Differences: Animal: The signs of animal systems are inborn. Human: The capacity to be creative with signs is inborn, but the signs (words) themselves are acquired culturally. Comparison of Human Language and Animal Communication Animal: Communication is set responses to stimuli (indexes). Human: Not limited to use as an index.  Animal: Each sign has one and only one function; each meaning can be expressed only in one way Human: Signs often have multiple functions; one meaning can be expresses in many ways Animal: Not naturally used in novel way Human: Creative, can be adapted to new situation  Animal: Closed inventory of signs; only a set number of different messages can be sent Human: Open ended. Grammar (rules of syntax) allows a virtually unlimited number of messages to be constructed  Animal: Change extremely slowly, with the speed of genetic evolution. Human: Change rapidly as a cultural phenomenon.  Summary What can animals do? Some can learn hundreds of signs. Some can associate meaning with sign. Some show understanding of simple, novel combinations. But... Most animals merely exhibit stimulus-response behavior. Ability to learn structure is lacking. Novel utterances are rare. Halliday’s Theory  Systemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is a model of grammar that was developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s. It is part of a broad social semiotic approach to language called systemic linguistics. The term "systemic" refers to the view of language as "a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning"; The term "functional" indicates that the approach is concerned with meaning, as opposed to formal grammar, which focuses on word classes such as nouns and verbs, typically without reference beyond the individual clause.  Systemic functional grammar is concerned primarily with the choices that the grammar makes available to speakers and writers. These choices relate speakers' and writers' intentions to the concrete forms of a language. Traditionally the "choices" are viewed in terms of either the content or the structure of the language used. In SFG, language is analyzed in three different ways, or strata: semantics, phonology, and lexicogrammar. SFG presents a view of language in terms of both structure (grammar) and words (lexis). The term "lexicogrammar" describes this combined approach.  Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centered around the notion of language function. SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language. It places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context.  Halliday’s theory is stated as ‘four stratification’. The notion 'stratification’, stated that language is analyzed in terms of four strata: Discourse-Context, Semantics, Lexico Grammar and Phonology-Graphology.  1. Discourse In discourse, context plays an important role. Context is divided into 2: socio cultural and situational. Socio- cultural context refers to context which occurs in social background of the participants and the typical culture of the participants. The situational context includes 3: the Field (what is going on), Tenor (the social roles and relationships between the participants), and the Mode (aspects of the channel of communication, e.g., monologic/dialogic, spoken/written, +/- visual-contact, etc.).  The context of socio-culture is an intricate complex of various social phenomena involving historical and geographical settings but also more general aspects like the field of the activity: education, medicine, provision of goods and services in exchange for money. Car maintenance discourse in a highly hierarchical society may be different from that which takes place in a relatively egalitarian society. Classroom discourse takes place within a wider cultural context of, say, university education or secondary school education, or slightly more specifically African university education, or Kenyan University education.  The context of situation is made up of all the phenomena which affect the discourse. In face-to-face interaction, the context of situation includes the immediate and wider environment in which the text actually occurs, like the classroom in the case of a teaching discourse, the shop or market in a sales transaction, the workshop in the case of a discussion about a gearbox replacement. The discipline in question also plays a part in the context of culture: thus a physics lecture takes place within the cultural practices and traditions of the field of physics at large as well as in a particular education system or institution.  2. Semantics Systemic semantics includes what is usually called 'pragmatics'. Semantics is divided into three components: a) Ideational Semantics (the propositional content); b) Interpersonal Semantics (concerned with speech function, exchange structure, expression of attitude, etc.); c) Textual Semantics (how the text is structured as a message, e.g., theme-structure, given/new, rhetorical structure etc.  3. The Lexico-Grammar concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances. Even here, a functional approach is taken, involving analysis of the utterance in terms of roles such as Actor, Agent/Medium, Theme Mood, etc. (See Halliday 1994 for full description).  Language as a resource for making meaning; language in actual use and focus on texts and their contexts The Context- Text Connection All meaning is situated: - In a context of situation - In a context of culture  Context of situation - Trough the use of the register variables Field: what’s going on Tenor: social Mode: how language is relationship between being used those taking part Activity focus Status or power (agent The channel of Object focus roles, peer or communication is hierarchic relations) spoken or written Affect (degree of like, Language is being dislike or neutrality) used as a mode or Contact (frequency, reflection. duration, and intimacy of social contact) Types of meaning/ functions:  Context and text connection Context Text Semantics Lexicogrammar  Context of Culture GENRE - A culturally specific text-types which results from using language (written or spoken) to help accomplish something Purposes Stages: Linguistic distinctive Feature beginnings, middles, and ends.  Types of Genre Genre Social function/ Generic structure/ Linguistic feature purpose stages 1. Narrative To amuse, - Orientation - Focus on entertain and to - Evaluation specific deal with actual or - Complication participants vicarious - Resolution - Use of material experiences in - Re- orientation process different ways. - Use rational process - Use temporal conjunction and temporal circumstances - Use of past tense  Genre Social function/ Generic structure/ Linguistic feature purpose stages 2. Spoof To retell event with - Orientation - Focus on specific humorous twist - Event participants - Twist - Use of material process - Circumstances of time and place - Use of past tense 3. Recount To retell events for - Orientation - Focus on specific the purpose of - Events participants informing or - Re- orientation - Use of material entertaining process - Circumstances of time and place - Use of past tense - Focus on temporal sequences A representation of the model of language mode LANGUAGE field REGISTER tenor GENRE  What do they mean? Why can we make meaning from them? Do they mean the same to everyone? What is implied about a language system has to encapsulate? Culture What is the broad and specific context? How does that impact on the text? Genre What is the specific purpose of the text? How is organized to achieve this? Topic What is being discussed/ written about? Relationships Who is taking part? What is the nature of their relationship? What are their statuses and roles? Mode Is it spoken, written, or multimodal?  The role of language in education according to Halliday Knowledge is transmitted in social contexts, through relationships, like those of parent and child, or teacher and pupil, or classmates, that are defined in the value systems and ideology of the culture. And the words that are exchanged in these contexts get their meaning from activities in which they are embedded, which again are social activities with social agencies and goals. Halliday's theory of "language as a social semiotic" is a very sophisticated, elaborate, "extravagant" (Halliday 1994) sociocultural theory of language, which really builds upon, extends, earlier theories of language and culture and language as social interaction. Its sophistication is in the way Halliday specifies the semiotics of the culture at the level of grammatical constituent, at the level of clause. The ideational, or cognitive function of language is realized by choices of process (verb) type; subject and object choices are to do with "participants" and their semantic roles; and "circumstances" are to do with adverbial choice: For example, the words which function as the processes of a clause were classified traditionally as verbs, and the meaningful unit which they predicated was classified as a clause; something/s, person/persons, or ideas or facts or utterances or thoughts, were directly involved in the process: these are classified as 'participants' in functional grammar and they are to do with choices in Subject or Object roles in the clause. The circumstances of the processes were classified traditionally as adverbs. The interpersonal function is to do with the kinds of communication roles chosen, together with ways of assessing usuality and probability: For example, our choice of making a statement, asking a question or giving an order is the foundation of the communication roles. Speakers and writers also position themselves in relation to their statement, question or command by assessing usuality, obligation, probability. These functions are realized by such modals as: sometimes, ought, perhaps. The textual function of language; because word order is central in the structure of English the first word or phrase (or clause in a clause complex) in the clause/clause- complex will be the message of the clause/clause complex. The thematic organization of clauses is the foundation of organization of language into meaningful extended texts, whether those texts are conversational or academic.  Non- Human Communication  Non- human communication Is the way anything non-human communicates without the use of words. The animal communication Animals communicate using signals, which can include visual; auditory, or sound based; chemical, involving pheromones; or tactile, touch base, cues. Communication behaviors can help animals find mates, establish dominance, defend territory, coordinate group behavior, and care for young. There are 4 common types of animal communication that animals use to express themselves, which are: 1. Auditory communication involving sound. 2. Visual communication involving gesture, posture, etc. 3. Tactile communication involving touch. 4. Chemical communication involving pheromone.  1. Auditory Communication Animals use sounds to express their feelings. When a pet owner provides some food to his dog and the dog barks, that means the dog is happy. Similarly, when a lion growls at a hunter, that means the lion is warning the hunter. Some animals use sounds to alarm their buddies about the approaching danger, while some use them to impress their mates. When a bird sings, usually it’s for his mate or to teach his baby birds.  1. Auditory Communication Some animals don’t have vocal organs but rather have complex auditory communication methods. Insects like cicadas, mosquitos, tenrecs etc. Relays on their body parts to create auditory communication methods.  2. Visual Communication Visual communication in animals is based on visible signals. facial expressions, coloration, camouflaging, etc. Few of these visual communication forms might not seem obvious at first glance, but with close inspection, you will be able to understand them.  2. Visual Communication Gestures and postures are the most commonly used visual communication for animals. You can see animals doing body movements such as raising hands, flicking feathers, shrinking, slapping the ground, slow body language, eye contact, etc., to attract their fellow mates’ attention, to ward off danger, for playtime or hunting. As for facial signals, the most common example you will find is of a young chimpanzee.  2. Visual Communication Another visual signal seen in animal communication is the change in colouration. The change can occur in a single part of their body that had no colour beforehand, like the female monkeys in heat or the existing shade of the body part like a poison dart frog. The reason behind such changes is mostly due to warding off approaching danger or going into heat.  3. Tactile Communication Tactile communication is said to be the most common form of animal communication. Tactile communication requires touching and the participants to be nearby. Animals usually prefer to stay in groups which put limitations on tactile communication.  3. Tactile Communication Tactile communication is called a common form of animal communication due to mating reasons. That way, tactile communication definitely occurs among every species of animal that goes through heat. Meanwhile, it is also recognized as a form of social bonding, infant care, grooming, or showcase of dominance. You can take a look at monkeys and apes who love to pick bugs off each other to display affection.  4. Chemical Communication Chemical communication is animal communication where the animals leave behind pheromones in the environment for different reasons. Pheromones are the chemical substance produced and released by animals that affect the behavior or psychology of other animals of their own species. It’s mostly seen among ants and bees. There are different types of pheromones seen in animals- releaser pheromones, primer pheromones, alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, and sex pheromones.  How do animals communicate to humans? The most common forms of communication between humans and animals are auditory, tactile, and visual.  TheLana Lana Project (Chimpanzee) Lana (October 7, 1970- November 2016) was a female chimpanzee, the first to be used in language research using lexigrams. She was born at the Yerkes National Primary Research Center of Emory University, and the project she was allocated to when 1 year old, the Language Analogue project led by Duane Rumbaugh, was named after her with the acronym LANA because the project team felt that her identity was well worth preserving.  The researchers stated Lana showed that she could discriminate between lexigrams, sequence words grammatically and make novel utterances, demonstrating language learning. The first LANA project (1971) officially had two Principal Investigators, Rumbaugh and Ernst Von Glaserfeld. Ernst von Glasersfeld developed the language that Lana learned to use: he coined the term “Lexigram", created the first 120 of them and designed the grammar that regulated their combination.  This artificial language was called Yerkish, in honor of Robert M. Yerkes, the founder of the laboratory within which the LANA project was conceived and conducted. The early project also had several graduate-student researchers. The prime researcher, and the prime worker with Lana was Dr. Timothy V. Gill. Included in the project were graduate students Gwen Bell Dooley, Beverly Wilkenson, and Michael D. Haberman, among others. Gwen Bell Dooley demonstrated Lana's cognitive capability to distinguish between two numerical sets of objects which she then labelled with either "more“ or "less", whichever was requested.  The Warshoe Project Warshoe (Chimpanzee) Washoe (c. September 1965 – October 30, 2007) was a female common chimpanzee who was the first non- human to learn to communicate using American Sign Language (ASL) as part of an animal research experiment on animal language acquisition Washoe was born in West Africa in 1965. She was captured for use by the US Air Force for research for the US space program. Washoe was named after Washoe County, Nevada, where she was raised and taught to use ASL ASL instruction and usage Teaching Method Washoe was raised in an environment as close as possible to that of a human child, in an attempt to satisfy her psychological need for companionship. ASL instruction and usage Combinations of signs Washoe and her mates were able to combine the hundreds of signs that they learned into novel combinations (that they had never been taught, but rather created themselves) with different meanings.  The Koko Project Koko (Gorilla) Koko was born on July 4, 1971, at the San Francisco Zoo to her biological mother Jacqueline and father Bwana. Koko was the 50th gorilla born in captivity and one of the first gorillas accepted by her mother in captivity. Koko remained with her mother until the age of one when Koko was taken to the zoo's hospital to be treated for a life- threatening illness.  Use of language Patterson reported that Koko's use of signs indicated that she mastered the use of sign language. Koko's training began at the age of 1 and she had a working vocabulary of more than 1,000 signs, which she was able to combine in complex ways. Despite her dexterity and literacy, she was never taught how to write.  Koko made several complex uses of signs that suggested a more developed degree of cognition than is usually attributed to non-human primates and their use of communication; for example, Koko was reported to use displacement (the ability to communicate about objects that are not currently present)  At age 19, Koko was able to pass the mirror test of self-recognition, which most other gorillas fail. She had been reported to relay personal memories Koko was reported to use meta- language, being able to use language reflexively to speak about language itself, signing "good sign" to another gorilla who successfully used signing.  Koko was reported to use language deceptively, and to use counterfactual statements for humorous effects, suggesting an underlying theory of other minds. Patterson reported that she documented Koko inventing new signs to communicate novel thoughts; for example, she said that nobody taught Koko the word for "ring", but to refer to it, Koko  EL 103: LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY PRAYER GOODMORNING, STUDENTS! REVIEW OF PAST LESSON  SURE, SURE, I CLOSE MY EYES  DIRECTIONS: The students will be divided to 5 groups. Each group will take turns sending one member out to act something for their team to guess. RULES: - No talking or making sound effects. - You can only use gestures and body movements to act out. - You cannot point to any objects in the room for help  SURE, SURE, I CLOSE MY EYES  OBJECTIVES AT THE END OF THE LESSON, THE STUDENT IS EXPECTED TO: 01 define and differentiate clearly the terms: icon, index, symptom, signal, and symbol. interpret appropriately how different signs (icon, index, symptom, signal, 02 and symbol) communicate meaning in different contexts. create a significant and creative infographic demonstrating 03 the use of different signs in daily life. ICON, INDEX, SYMPTOM, SIGNAL, AND SYMBOL  FERDINAND DE SAUSURRE - is a philosopher that introduced the concepts of Signifier (the form the sign takes) and the Signified (the concept it represents). - Saussure was a French linguist that was one of the first to produce a semiotic theory during work in the early 1900’s.  SIGNIFIERS SIGNIFIED any motion, gesture, image, the concept that a signifies refers sound, pattern, or event that to, the meaning it conveys. conveys meaning and communicates. TREE CHARLES SANDRES PIERCE is an American philosopher that also formulated a semiotic theory around the same time as Saussure, the early 1900’s. Pierce stated semiotics to be the relationship between a symbol, icon, and an index.  FERDINAND DE SAUSURRE CHARLES SANDRES PIERCE - Revolutionized the study of language laying the - He offered a more complex and pragmatic approach to groundwork for structuralism and development of understanding signs and their interpretation. semiotics. Concept of semiology the signs of signs within social life Semiosis process by which a sign produces a meaning that (culture and society) is continuously and dynamic that can result to potentially infinite of chain meaning. Unlimited Semiosis sign that can evolve over a period of time through different interpretation. Concept of Signifier and Signified Concept of Triadic Signifier- the form the sign takes. Representamen- the form the sign takes. Signified- the concept it represents. The Object- actual thing or concept. The Interpretant- meaning and understanding derived from the sign. Involves Diachronic and Synchronic Involves Pragmatic Approach Diachronic- linguistics studies the historical Pragmatism- meaning of a sign is not about its development and evolution of language over time. immediate interpretation but also its practical effects. Synchronic- studies language as a complete system at a This approach adds functional dimensions to the particular time. interpretation of signs, linking meaning to experience and action.  SEMIOTICS is the study of signs and symbols, and how they are used to convey meaning in communication. It is also the interaction between signs and culture, and how these shape social practices and values. There are 5 types of signs: Icons, Index, Symptom, Signal, and Symbol  1.ICONS An icon is a sign that physically resembles the things it represents. They are used as the means to communicate important information. There are four characteristics of icon: clarity, consistency, scalability, and color scheme.  CLARITY CONSITENCY SCALABILITY COLOR SCHEME icons should be the style, the the icons you understandable to the color schemes color user in a single glance. design you chose to schemes you They should be should be designed and drawn design icons chose for you scalable for clearly and relative to should be icons are the context or object consistent smaller to you are trying to essential as throughout the larger represent. well. interface. screens.  2. INDEX is a sign which is related to the object it represents but not directly or in a concrete way. Indexes are used to represent abstract things, emotions, ideas, etc. Signs where the signifier is caused by the signified. An index is related to the object it represents but not in a direct or concrete way. 2. INDEX Smoke Footprint Thermometer  3. SYMPTOM is any phenomenon or circumstance accompanying somethings and serving as evidence of it. A sign or indication of something. It is also a natural sign that indicates a condition.  4. SIGNAL are words and phrases that indicate relationships between ideas. A signal is a deliberately created sign to communicate specific information. It usually a message that conveys a notice or a warning. Not entirely arbitrary.  NO ENTRY WALK SIGNAL LEFT TURN CONSTRUCTION STRAIGHT AHEAD AND NO ON GOING RIGHT TURN OVERTAKING  5. SYMBOL is a mark, sign, or, word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. It also represents ideas through social agreement.  GENERALIZATION DIRECTIONS : Identify the type of sign for each example (icon, index, symptom, signal, or symbol) and connect signifiers (set A) to signified (set B).  APPLICATION/ EVALUATION/ ASSESSMENTV Directions: Make an infographic that involves a specific area of your daily life (e.g., traffic and transportation, healthcare, digital communication, environmental signs, or cultural symbols) where different types of signs (icons, indexes, symptoms, signals, and symbols) are frequently used. Make the infographic visually engaging with appropriate color schemes, fonts, and layout to ensure information is easy to understand.  Criteria Description Points Demonstrates a clear understanding of icons, Content Accuracy indexes, symptoms, signals, and symbols with 30 accurate examples. Infographic is creative, visually appealing, and uses Creativity unique ideas or approaches in presenting the 25 information. The explanations are concise, clear, and easy to Clarity of understand. Visuals match the content and aid 20 Information understanding.  Criteria Description Points Design elements (color, font, layout) enhance the Visual Design presentation and readability. The infographic is 15 organized well. The infographic includes all five sign types with Completeness two examples each, along with proper 10 explanations. Total 100  ASSIGNMENT Directions: Over the next day, observe the signs (icons, indexes, symptoms, signals, and symbols) you encounter in your daily routine—at home, in school, in public, or online. Criteria Correct Identification - 10 Clear Explanation - 10 Completeness - 10 TOTAL - 30  Identify One Example for Each Type of Sign. Icon: A sign that resembles its object (e.g., restroom sign, picture). Index: A sign that points to or indicates something (e.g., smoke indicating fire). Symptom: A natural sign that shows a condition (e.g., sneezing as a sign of a cold). Signal: A sign that gives specific information or prompts an action (e.g., traffic light). Symbol: A sign that represents something through cultural agreement (e.g., flag, religious symbol). Write a Brief Explanation: For each example, write 1-2 sentences explaining what type of sign it is and how it functions in daily life.  QUESTIONS OR CLARIFICATIONS? THANK YOU AND GOOD BYE CLASS.  TSL426 FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PREPARED BY : NUR SYAHIRAH BINTI ROSLAN (2015146359) SYAZANA BINTI MOHAMAD (2015158939) FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION  DEFINITION Refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is the acquisition of the mother tongue. The process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using language.  INPUT Input is where human infants are certainly helped in their language acquisition by the adults in the home environment. “baby talk” is where speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time interacting with a young child. Examples for simplified words are “tummy” , “mama” “poo-poo” “pee-pee” and others.  Caregiver Speech Also described as “motherese” or “child- directed speech”. There are four types of caregiver speech : Often using Frequent use exaggerated of questions intonation A slower Extra loudness tempo with longer pauses BACK TO QUESTION 1 THE ACQUISITION STAGES The two- Telegraphic word stage speech The one- word stage Babbling Cooing  1) Cooing Between 2-4 months. The child gradually becomes capable of producing vowel-like sounds, such as [i] and [u] Repetition of the vowel sounds. Express satisfaction or pleasure.  2) Babbling Between 6-8 months. The child produces a number of different vowels and consonants, such as ba-ba-ba and ba-ba-da-da, which at times can almost sound like a real speech. Uses consonants B, M, D and G. BACK TO QUESTION 2  3) The one-word stage Between 12 – 18 months. One or two recognizable word. Resembles words or simple phrases. Words that utter everyday objects such as “milk” , “cat” , “spoon”  4) The two-word stage Begin around 18 – 20 months. At least 50 different words. Simple sentences, grammatically incorrect and perhaps missing information. Variety combination words appear. For examples : baby chair, daddy car, more milk, cat bad.  The phrase “baby chair” may be taken as : 1) an expression of possession = (this is baby’s chair) or 2) as a request = (put baby in the chair) or 3) as a statement = (baby is in the chair)  5) Telegraphic speech Between 2 – 3 years old. The child begins producing a large number that could be classified as “multiple-word” speech. The child vocabulary has grown to hundreds of words during this stage and pronunciation become more clearer.  Almost complete sentences. Correct/proper word order. Physical development : running and jumping. For examples : a) this shoe all wet b) daddy go bye-bye c) cat drink milk THE ACQUISITION PROCESS Developing Developing semantics syntax Developing morphology Learning through correction Learning through imitation  1) Learning through imitation Basis of child’s speech production used by young children. They may repeat single words or phrases, but not the sentences structures. It is likely that the children understand what are the sentences but they express what they understand by their own. For examples : Mum is hungry = mum hungry The cat is sleeping = cat sleep  2) Learning through correction It is unlikely that adult “corrections” are a very effective determiner of how the child speaks. The child will continue to use a personally constructed form, despite the adult’s repetition of what the correct form should be. Example : Child : My teacher holded the baby rabbits. Mother : Did you say your teacher held the baby rabbits? Child : Yes. Mother : Did you say she held them tightly? Child : No, she holded them loosely.  3) Developing morphology By the time a child is two-and-a-half years old, he or she is going beyond telegraphic speech and the child indicates the grammatical function of the nouns and verbs used.  4) Developing syntax In the formation of questions and the use of negatives. The child goes through with 3 stages : Stage 1 occurs Stage 2 occurs Stage 3 occurs between 18 – 26 between 22 - 30 between 24 - 40 months months months  Forming questions Forming negatives First stage : First stage : Wh- form (Where, Who) to the beginning A simple strategy of putting NO or NOT at of the expression. the beginning. Examples : Where mummy? Examples : not a teddy bear Who is that person? not sit here Second stage : Second stage : More complex expressions can be formed. Additional negative forms “don’t” and Wh-forms, such as What and Why. “can’t” appear, and with no and not. Examples : What is mummy doing? Examples : He not bite you Why daddy is not home yet? You cant dance Third stage : Third stage : The movement of the auxiliary in English Other auxiliary forms such as didn’t and questions (I can have… -> Can I have…?) won’t. Generally quite close to adult model. Examples : Can I have a piece? Examples : I didn’t buy it. Will you help me? She won’t let go.  5) Developing semantics During the two-word stage, children use their limited vocabulary to refer to a large number of unrelated objects. Overextension : overextend the meaning of a word on the basis of similarities of shape, sound and size. Example : use ball to refer an apple, an egg or a ball. BACK TO QUESTION 3 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OR LEARNING  SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING the process by which people learn another language in addition to their native language. First language as (L1) whereas foreign or second language is (L2). A distinction is sometimes made between learning in a “foreign language” setting (learning a language that is not generally spoken in the surrounding community) and a “second language” setting (learning a language that is spoken in the surrounding community). Example : Japanese students in an English class in Japan are learning English as a foreign language (EFL) but if those same students were in an English class in USA, they would be learning English as a second language (ESL).  ACQUISITION AND LEARNING Acquisition Gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations with others who know the language. Takes place without a teacher. Example : Children who “pick up” a second language from long periods spent in interaction, constantly using the language with the native speakers of the language as their L1.  Learning A conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the features of language such as pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Takes place with a teacher. Result in more knowledge “about” the language than fluency in actually using the language. Example : A student can fill in the blanks on a grammar page but knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking as they may not be able to speak fluently.  ACQUISITION BARRIERS 1) Insufficient focus on the process (adults have a lot of other things to do and think about, unlike very young children). 2) Insufficient incentive (adults already know a language and can use it for their communicative needs) 3) The “critical period” for language acquisition has passed (usually around the time of puberty) 4) Affective factors such as self-consciousness that inhibit the learning process.  THE AGE FACTOR ADULT Difficult to acquire another language fully after the critical period for language acquisition has passed. Result to loss of flexibility or openness to receive the features of another language. CHILDREN Quicker and more effective L2 learners in class. Optimum age for learning (10 – 16 years old) when the flexibility of the inherent capacity for language has not been completely lost.  AFFECTIVE FACTORS The negative feelings or experiences which can create a barrier to acquisition. - STRESS - UNCOMFORTABLE - SELF-CONSCIOUS - UNMOTIVATED  FOCUS ON TEACHING METHOD GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD A method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. A way to teach languages is through the teaching of grammar and the translation of texts. Students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language(L2) and the native language (L1). Emphasize a written language rather than spoken language -very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. BACK TO QUESTION 5  THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD Learn to speak languages through habit-formation, and therefore need to practice drills until the new habit has been learnt. Emphasized a spoken language. Belief that the fluent use of language might develop with a lot of practice repeating oral skills.  COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES Languages are learnt through communication, and that the focus of the classroom should be on encouraging learners to engage in speaking activities which simulate 'real life' communication. Emphasized the functions of language (what it is used for) rather than the forms of language (correct grammatical or phonological structures). Example : Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues as it involves meaningful communication.  FOCUS ON THE LEARNER The fundamental change has been shift from concern with the teacher, textbook and method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition process. “ Errors ” were regarded negatively and they had to be avoided. Example : A Spanish (L1) speaker’s production of in the room there are three womens that shows a failure to learn correct English. Indication of the natural L2 acquisition process in action. A clue to the active learning progress being made by the student as he/she tries out ways of communicating in new language.  TRANSFER Transfer (crosslinguistic influence) – using sounds, expressions or structures from the L1 when performing in the L2. Positive transfer – The use of a feature from the L1 that is similar to the L2 while performing in the L2. ( e.g. the German learner producing 'I am twelve years old' in English L2 as a direct translation of the German structure) Negative transfer – Transferring an L1 feature that is really different (interference) from the L2 while performing in the L2. (e.g. the French learner producing 'I have 12 years').  INTERLANGUAGE Interlanguage - the term for a dynamic, rule-based linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not yet reached proficiency. A learner's interlanguage preserves some features of their first language (or L1), and can also overgeneralize some L2 writing and speaking rules. Interlanguage can fossilize. Fossilization - the process of 'freezing' of the transition between the L1 and L2 because of the inability to overcome the obstacles to acquire native proficiency in the L2.  MOTIVATION 2 types of language learning motivation :- INTEGRATIVE INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION MOTIVATION Learners want to learn the Learners with an L2 so that they can better instrumental motivation want understand and get to know to learn the L2 in order to the people who speak that achieve some other goal such language. as completing a school Usually for social purposes graduation requirement. in order to take part in the Does not plan to engage in social life of a community social interaction using the using the language. L2. BACK TO QUESTION 6  INPUT AND OUTPUT Input - describe the language that the learner is exposed to. Input can be made comprehensible by being simpler in structure and vocabulary, as in the variety of speech called foreigner talk. Negotiated Input: Target language (L2) material that learner acquire in interaction through request for clarification while active attention is being focused on what is said. The opportunity to produce comprehensible output in meaningful interaction seems to be another important element in the learner’s development of L2 ability.  TASK-BASED LEARNING A solution to create different types of tasks and activities which learners (in small group/pairs) have to interact with each other to exchange or solve problems. Example : The assumption in using tasks such as “ Plan a shopping trip with your partner by making a shopping list”. To improve the learner’s fluency by using the L2 in an activity that focuses on a clear goal. Result – Provide overwhelming evidence of better L2 uses by learners and develop communicative competence in L2.  COMMUNITIVE COMPETENCE Communicative competence – General ability to use language accurately, appropriately and flexibly. STRATEGIC SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE COMPETENCE GRAMMATICAL Ability to use language COMPETENCE Ability of learner in to organize effective producing sentences messages and to Involves the accurate according to the overcome potential use of words and communicative communication structures. situation. problems. Only concentrate on Enables the learner to Gestures, expressions, grammatical know when to say Can I mimics and intonation competence. have some water? are among others some versus Give me some of the most strategies water! according to used. social context. BACK TO QUESTION 4  APPLIED LINGUISTIC Large-scale endeavor by applying the ideas of linguistic from other fields such as communication studies, education, psychology and sociology. Concerned with practical issues involving language and its role in everyday life. Represent an attempt to deal with a large range of real-world issues involving language.  QUIZ QUESTION 1 QUESTION 4 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 5 QUESTION 3 QUESTION 6 1. Choose the typical features of caregiver speech. a) Frequent use of questions, extra loud noises, slower tempo with longer pauses and often using exaggerated intonation b) Child produces a number of different vowels and consonants, such as ba-ba-ba and ba-ba-da-da 2. During which stage and what age do children typically begin producing varied syllable combinations such as ba-ba-da-da? a) Babbling stage. It happens between 6-8 months. b) Telegraphic speech. It happens between 2-3 years old 3. What is the term used to describe the process involved when a child uses one word like ball to refer to an apple, an egg or a ball? a) Baby talk b) Overextension 4. What are the three components of communicative competence? a) Grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence b) Transfer, interlanguage and motivation 5. Choose the correct teaching methods introduced in learning second language acquisition? a) Task-based learning and communicative competence b) Grammar translation method, audiolingual method and communicative approaches 6. What are the types of language learning motivation in second language acquisition? a) Input and output b) Instrumental motivation and integrative motivation EXCELLENT THAT’S RIGHT  OPPS TRY AGAIN  MODULE 1 Review on Definitions of Language, Macro Skills, Communicative Competence, Views on Language, and Components of Grammar Excellence is our culture… At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: a.Give an in-depth definition of language b.Identify the skills in macro skills c.Analyze the four components of communicative competence d.Identify the structure and components of grammar Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  Noam Chomsky Excellence is our culture…  Communication Theory Excellence is our culture…  Language Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  Definition of Language Language is an integral part of society, it connects us and helps us to have better communication and transmission of information to each other. Language is the best influential way to be able to understand and connect with others. Excellence is our culture…  Language is the most significant form of communication. Excellence is our culture…  "What is the meaning of language?" Excellence is our culture…  Language is an intricate human phenomenon. Excellence is our culture…  “Original noise” Excellence is our culture…  Language is a system of traditional, spoken, or written symbols utilized by humans for communication Excellence is our culture…  Definition of language according to our greatest Scholars Excellence is our culture… NOAM CHOMSKY According to Noam Chomsky, the ability of native speakers to comprehend and construct grammatical sentences is innate. A language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each of finite length and constructed from a finite set of elements. Sentences are the foundation of a language. Sentences may be constrained or unrestricted and contain only minor components. Excellence is our culture… DESMOND C. DERBYSHIRE (1924-2007) Derbyshire asserts that a language is undeniably a form of human communication. Primarily, it consists of vocal sounds that are systematic, articulatory, arbitrary, and symbolic. This definition of Derbyshire clearly states that language is the most effective means of communication, and it describes the formation of human language and the fundamental principles of language. Excellence is our culture…Object-initial language(OVS) FERDINAND D SUASSURE Language is a system of arbitrary signs composed of signifiers and signified. In other words, language is a system based on neither logic nor reason, and the system encompasses both components and expressions used to describe objects. Expressions and objects are arbitrarily linked. Lastly, expressions consist of the sounds and graphemes that humans use to generate written and spoken words, respectively, for communication. Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… LEONARD BLOOMFIELD The language of a linguistic community is the sum of all utterances that can be constructed in that speech community. Bloomfield's distinction of language tends to focus on utterances made by all members of the community and thus ignores writing. Furthermore, he emphasizes form as the foundation of language rather than Behaviorism meaning. Scientific basis of linguistics Excellence is our culture…  ARISTOTLE Speech is the manifestation of the mind's experiences. Language, according to Aristotle, is a speaking sound created by humans to express their emotions, ideas, thoughts, wants, and even needs. Excellence is our culture… HENRY SWEET Language is the conveyance of thoughts through the combination of speech sounds into words. The combining of words into sentences corresponds to the synthesis of concepts into thoughts Excellence is our culture… 1. Language is primarily used for communication. 2. Language is a vital aspect of humans. 3. Set of arbitrary symbols in language. Excellence is our culture…  4. Arbitrary symbols are vocal and visual 5. Symbols allude to predetermined, conventionalized meanings. 6. Language can be generative and systematic. Excellence is our culture…  7. Culture or speech community is where language operates. Excellence is our culture… Language and Culture Language is a key component of culture. It carries the values, traditions, and beliefs of a community. Through language, cultural practices are transmitted across generations. For example, certain phrases or expressions may encapsulate unique cultural concepts or historical experiences that are specific to a particular group. Excellence is our culture… Language and Society Language also influences and is influenced by social structures and relationships. It can reinforce social hierarchies and reflect social changes. The way people use language can indicate their social status, group identity, or regional background. Excellence is our culture…  Macro Skills Excellence is our culture… Macro abilities are the principal, most important, prominent, and essential extensive skill set in a specific situation. Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  According to Aydoan (2014), the concept of the four core language skills—listening, reading, speaking, and writing—has been used in language instruction for many years. The "macro skills" are four commonly employed linguistic talents. This is in contrast to the "micro-skills," that include things like vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and pronunciation. As we acquire a language, we need four skills in order to communicate effectively. These are referred to as the four "skills in language." Excellence is our culture…  LSRW competencies Excellence is our culture…  RECEPTIVE EXPRESSIVE MACRO SKILL MACRO SKILL The ability to The use of grasp words language, words, and language gestures, sentences, and is referred to writing to produce as a message or transmit a meaning Excellence is our culture…  In the oral modality, the receptive skill is listening comprehension Speaking is the oral mode's expressive capability. Excellence is our culture…  Reading is the written mode's receptive skill Writing is a productive skill in terms of written aspects Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  Why viewing is considered a new macro skill in English? Why is it necessary to include this skill? Excellence is our culture… VIEWING Viewing is the process of observing, evaluating, interpreting, and building meaning from visual pictures, and it is essential for enhancing the understanding of printed and non-print sources. It is a procedure that promotes literacy and oracy and is part of a comprehensive language arts program Excellence is our culture… It entails deciphering the visuals that words represent and interconnecting pictures in videos, computer programs, and web pages Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  Types of viewing Excellence is our culture… VISUAL LITERACY ✓ Capability and ability to deduce meaning from visual imagery. (Georgis,1999) ✓ Capability to create effective visuals to communicate concepts to others. (Valmont, 2003; Heinich, 1999) Excellence is our culture… CRITICAL VIEWING ✓ Aptitude to properly absorb and analyze information offered through visual media ✓ Capability to critically think about the different picture compositions. Excellence is our culture… The connection of the macro-skills with vocabulary, grammar, and literature Increasing one's macro abilities enhances communication competence, which includes the ability to use vocabulary, grammar, and literature appropriately. Listening, speaking, reading, writing, and viewing are all macro-skills that play an important part in increasing learners' competency. Since these abilities or skills are essential in the manifestations of producing and interpreting a spoken or written piece of discourse (literature), as well as a method of manifesting the remaining components of a language(vocabulary and grammar) Excellence is our culture…  Direction: As you have learned the definition of language, answer the following questions down below, consisting of three to six paragraphs in every question. a. What is your own definition of language? b. Why language is important in terms of communication to other people? c. Do you think that we will be able to live harmoniously and connect to other people without language? Why? Why not? Excellence is our culture…  Direction: Answer the table base on the given situation. Select the best macro skill that is suited for each scenario, put a check ( ) for your selected answer. Excellence is our culture…  LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING VIEWING 1. Kyla is joining a debate regarding the issues of pre- marital sex in our country. 2. Arjon is joining an essay contest about the climate change. 3. Carla’s friend is telling her about the problems that she has in school. 4. Teacher Trisha is asking the class to read the story of The Little Prince. 5. Johna will go to Art Museum to see spectacular paintings Excellence is our culture…  LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING VIEWING 6. Kevin is a musician who writes songs about heart break. 7. Chesca is decoding a grammar analysis on her work book. 8. Rhizza heard the angelic voice of Rihanna on the other room. 9. Analyn will recite a poem in front of the class. 10. Amethyst is appreciating the view of the sunset near the river Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  What is the aim of language course? Excellence is our culture…  Communicative Competence Linguistic competence Sociolinguistic competence Discourse competence Strategic competence Excellence is our culture…  Communicative Competence Communicative competence is the instinctive highly functional knowledge, understanding and control of language usage rules. Excellence is our culture…  As Hymes points out: “ a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not , and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, and in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others.” (Hymes 1972, 277)”. Excellence is our culture… The following characteristics of linguistic knowledge are included in communicative competence: 1. Understanding how to utilize language for a variety of purposes and functions. 2. Understanding and producing many forms of texts (e.g., narratives, interviews, reports, and dialogues). Excellence is our culture… 3. Understanding how to modify our use of language depending on the situation and the participants (for example, knowing about when to use formal and casual speech or how and when to use language suited for written rather than spoken communication). 4. Understanding how to continue communication despite limits in one's language expertise (e.g.,through using different variants of communication strategies) Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…  Linguistic competence ✓ It is the unconscious state of understanding of the language code, including its grammar and vocabulary, as well as the standards of written representation (orthography and script). ✓ It is the understanding of the language code, which includes grammar and vocabulary, as well as the standards of representation in written form (script and orthography). Excellence is our culture…  Sociolinguistic competence ✓It can also be called speech competency since it refers to the capacity to carry out and explain communication objectives based on the communication goals (Fisenko et al., 2021). Excellence is our culture…  Sociolinguistic competence ✓ It is knowing how to communicate effectively in a specific situation by using the appropriate vocabulary, words, expressions, and attitudes in particular contexts. It is the understanding of sociocultural rules use and,i.e. knowing how to utilize and respond appropriately to language. Excellence is our culture…  The appropriateness of the communication is determined by the context, the issue, and the connections between the individuals communicating. Excellence is our culture…  Discourse competence ✓ Discourse competence is the ability to create and comprehend oral or written texts through the modes of writing and speaking as well as listening and reading. ✓ It is the ability to blend several types of language patterns into a coherent and cohesive oral or written text. Excellence is our culture…  Discourse competence Consequently, discourse competency is concerned with structuring words, phrases, and sentences to produce discussions, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper stories, and so on Excellence is our culture…  Strategic competence Strategic competence is the ability to detect and remedy communication disruptions before,during, and after they happen Excellence is our culture…  A COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING Excellence is our culture…  Communicative language teaching, which involves the instruction and acquisition of the language considered acceptable to specific situations, predicated on what speakers actually use as opposed to what is assumed to be used Excellence is our culture…  COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF CLT Excellence is our culture… 1. Asserts that pupils acquire a language through communication. Excellence is our culture… 1. Asserts that pupils acquire a language through communication. Excellence is our culture… 2. The objective of classroom activities should be honest and meaningful dialogue Excellence is our culture… 3. fluency-which is the capacity to generate and transmit one's concepts intelligibly and with relative ease, is regarded as a significant aspect of communication, as opposed to the preceding concept of the term correctness, which refers to the capacity to produce and understand with few errors Excellence is our culture… 4. Communication is supposed to involve the integration of multiple language skills Excellence is our culture… 5.Learning is a process of inventive construction involving trial and error. Excellence is our culture… The Natural Approach, Content-Based Teaching, and Cooperative Language Learning, often known as CLIL, and Task-Based Teaching emerged as a result of the rapid implementation and adoption of Communicative Language Teaching. Excellence is our culture…  Direction: Analyze the four components of communicative competence by completing the SWOT analysis for each competency. Excellence is our culture…  STRENGTH WEAKNESSES LINGUISTIC SWOT COMPTENCE OPPURTUNUTIES THREATS Excellence is our culture…  STRENGTH WEAKNESSES SOCIOLINGUSTIC COMPTENCE SWOT OPPURTUNUTIES THREATS Excellence is our culture…  STRENGTH WEAKNESSES DISCOURSE SWOT COMPTENCE OPPURTUNUTIES THREATS Excellence is our culture…  STRENGTH WEAKNESSES STRATEGIC SWOT COMPTENCE OPPURTUNUTIES THREATS Excellence is our culture… DIFFERENT VIEWS ON LANGUAGE Excellence is our culture…  1. STRUCTURAL VIEW 2. FUNCTIONAL VIEW 3. INTERACTIONAL VIEW Excellence is our culture… STRUCTURAL VIEW ❑ The structural view conceives languages as a linguistic system composed of numerous subsystems, ranging from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences. ❑ There are a finite amount of these structural elements in each language. To learn a language, one must acquire certain structural elements in order to comprehend and produce language. Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… FUNCTIONAL VIEW ❑ The functional view of language as both a linguistic system and a tool for accomplishing tasks. ❑ The majority of our daily language use comprises of utilitarian actions, such as suggesting, offering, advertising, and apologizing. ❑ Learners acquire a language in order to accomplish tasks with it Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… INTERACTIONAL VIEW ❑ The interactional view of language as a tool of communication whose primary function is to develop and maintain social relationships between individuals. ❑ Learners must consequently not only master the syntax and vocabulary of the language, but also the rules for employing them in a wide variety of communicative contexts. Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… COMPONENTS OF GRAMMAR  1. SYNTAX ❑ Understanding of grammar involves how to arrange words in sentences (syntax rules) in recognizable English patterns. ❑ Yet syntax is more than just word order. ❑ Moreover, syntax interacts with other parts of the linguistic system. Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture… How do we classify words as "parts of speech?“ How do we break the statement into its two major components/phrases?) Excellence is our culture…  2. MORPHOLOGY ❑ Morphology focuses on the study of words, their formation (word structure), and their connections to other words within the same language. ❑ Examines the structure of words, including prefixes, infixes, suffixes, and root words. Derivational morphology lexical) and inflectional morphology are known as the branches of morphology. Excellence is our culture…  Suffixation and prefixation are two methods for constructing words. These word parts are known as morphemes. Excellence is our culture…  Resealable Resealed Excellence is our culture… ❑a morpheme refers to the smallest grammatical units of a language, each of which constitutes a meaningful portion of a word and cannot be subdivided into smaller, independent grammatical units. ❑morphemes attach to words or word roots (and some languages have infixes, which occur within words, and circumfixes, which simply attach to the beginning and the end of a word). Excellence is our culture… ❑Two types of affixation exist: derivational and inflectional. Re- and -able are derivational affixes since their addition creates a dictionary or a new word entry (reseal, sealable, resealable). ❑Inflectional affixes give grammatical information to existing words; they do not produce new words (e.g., the plural–s, the comparative –er). It is observed that only "rat and cold, but not rat and colder," have entries in the dictionary Excellence is our culture…  Examples of some derivational affixes: Verbs ( -ate, -ize -ify, -dis, en) Adverbs (-wise, -ly, -like) Nouns (-ment, -ity, -ex, -ion) Excellence is our culture… Here are the exact eight inflectional affixes in English: Adjectives (superlative –est, and comparative –er) Nouns (plural –s, and possessive –s) Verbs (pres. participle –ing, past tense –ed , 3rd sing. –s, past participle –en/ed) Excellence is our culture…  Here are additional rules of word construction (applied solely to lexical categories — verb, noun, adjective, and adverb). 1. COINING 2. COMPOUNDING 3. BLENDING 4. CONVERSION 5. ACRONYMS 6. EPONYMS Excellence is our culture… COINING – Creating new terms unrelated to existing ones (quiz, bling). COMPOUNDING – Several words functioning as a single word (backlash, bailout, voiceover). Excellence is our culture… BLENDING – telescoping together of two words (spork, brunch). CONVERSION – Assigning a single word to many syntactic classes (email, father, tweet). Excellence is our culture… ACRONYMS – Words derived from abbreviations (ROTC). EPONYMS - Commonly derived from brand names (xerox, google). Excellence is our culture…  3. SEMANTICS ❑ Semantics is the linguistics and logic subfield concerned with meaning. It is the analysis and study of how language creates meaning. ❑ In addition to syntactic and morphological data, grammatical knowledge provides rules for constructing and comprehending the significance and meaning of words and sentences. Excellence is our culture… 1. Grammatical knowledge involves the ability to generate meaning from words and sentences. 2. Grammar component that determines meaning is distinct from other grammatical components. Excellence is our culture…  4. PHONOLOGY and PHONETICS ❑ Phonology is the set of rules used to combine phonemes into syllables, words, and bigger units; the study of the patterns of the sound that occur within a language. ❑ the study of the creation and description of sounds and speech, with phonology Excellence is our culture… ❑ Phonetics is the study of spoken sounds and their physiological production and acoustic properties, as well as the anatomy, neurology, physiology and acoustics of speaking. ❑ Phonetics, according to Ladefoged (n.d.), is concerned with the vocal track's configuration, utilized to produce speech sounds (articulatory phonetics), the acoustic qualities of speech sounds (acoustic phonetics), and the manner in which sounds are combined to form syllables, words, and sentences (linguistic phonetics). Excellence is our culture… Note that phonetics and phonology actually interact with other grammar components as well. Changing a word's pronunciation, (serene/ serenity; school/ scholarly). Cats, desks (s is pronounced as /s/); dogs, automobiles (s is pronounced as /z/ due to a phonological rule known as voicing assimilation) Excellence is our culture… Excellence is our culture…