Human Anatomy Exam 2 PDF

Tissues 1) Epithelial ↳ & covering lining places ↳ ex : Skin 2) connective ) ↳ joiner of tissues ↳ binds &...

Tissues 1) Epithelial ↳ & covering lining places ↳ ex : Skin 2) connective ) ↳ joiner of tissues ↳ binds & Supports 3) Muscle ↳ ability to contract 4) Nervous - > ability to create electrical imprise · Extracellular Matrix - ground substance ↳ extracellular fluid ↳ contains lots of nutrients , water , & ions - protien Fibers ↳ collagen Fiber · strong * gives strength to tissues Fiber ↳ elastic * stretch & recoil ↳ reticular Fiber * support but delicate Epithelial Tissues · found covering a lining very little extracellular matrix · · exibits polarity ↳ aka : one end is bound to body /basement membranes , other end is free surfaced (apical surface) · cells packed in tightly forming , sheets · avascular (no blood) ↳:: undergoes mitosis & dies v quickly · connective tissue found & bottom · functions ↳ diffusion ↳ filtration 4) secretion ↳ absorption ↳ protection · classification ## of cell layers 3 simple epithelium - * 1 layer 1st name stratified epithelium - * multiple layers - > shape of cell - squamous cell * scale-like  cuboidal cell 3 und - name * cube-like columnar cell - * column-like Types of Epithelial Tissues * form fits function 1) simple squamous epithelium · adapted for rapid diffusion of substances /Oxygen , CO2 , fluids , ions) · alveoli of lungs , capillaries very thin · 2) simple cuboidal epithelium ringlets · · nucleus usually in middle found in Kidney tubules thyroid gland, ducts · , · diffusion , secretion , absorption 3) simple columnar epithelium · absorption , secretion of mucos · GI tract 4) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears stratified but is only I layer · · nuclei o various heights · cilliated respiratory tract & nasal cavity · 5) stratified squamous epithelium · protective tissue · many layers · Keratinized Stratified Squamous ET ↳ Filled wi Keratin ↳ Strengthens & water proof ↳ top layer's dead , no nuclei · Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous ET ↳ top layer alive & retains nuclei ↳ moist ↳mouth throat , , Vagina 6)Transitional epithelium · only in Urinary system · gets stretched out Kidney bladder , ureters urethra · , , · dome at top , cuboidal & bottom when relaxed · stratified Connective Tissue - a lot of extracellular matrix varying blood supply - varying function - ↳ protection ↳ insulation & support ↳ binding > ↳ transportation Connective Tissue Types - Areolar connective +issue 4) under epithelial tissue ↳ very Fiberous ↳ can hold a lot of fluid in ECM ↳ Fibroblasts a ↳ wraps cushions organs - Adipose tissue ↳ fat ↳ ok blood supply - > I cell called adipocyte ↳ nucleus gets pushed to edge (ring) - Dense regular tissue ↳ very poor blood supply ↳ super packed together ↳ attaches muscles to borns ↳ major cell type is the Fibroblast ↳ located in tendons & ligaments ↳ collagen Dense irregular tissue - ↳ fibroblast ↳ collagen ↳ can withstand pulls in multi-directions ↳ joint capson & Skin - cartilage ↳ all 3 cell types have chondrocytes in lacunas ("little lakes") 1) Hyaline · resists stress / not smooth fibrous · btwn bones trachea nose costal cartilage · , , , 2) Elastic · elastic Fibers ; flexible · pinna /external ear) & epiglottis (part of larynx) 3) Fibrocartilage collagen looks like waves · · supportive · miniscus of knee , intrevertebral discs , public symphysis - Bone ↳ good healer & good blood supply ↳ lacuna & osteocyte ↳ calcified matrix Supports , protects - , levers for muscles - Blood ↳ red & white blood cells in fluid matrix (Plasma) Transport ↳ respiratory gases , nutrients , waste , etc. Muscle Tissue - little ECM (more than epithelial) - vascular - can extend a contract - MOVEMENT 1) Skeletal 4 long , cylindrical , stricted ↳ multiple nuclei ↳ voluntary movement ↳ in Skeletal muscles attatched to bones & sometimes Skin 2 smooth ↳ spindle-shaped cells ↳ central nuclei ↳ cells arranged closely to form sheets ↳ involuntary movement ↳ propels substances or objects (food , urine , a baby mostly ↳ in walls of hollow organ 3) cardiac ↳ striated , uni-nucleated ↳ cells separated by intercalated discs 4) only in heart (not blood vessels) ↳ involuntary , doesn't need brain ↳ propels blood Nervous Tissue - fair amt. of cellular matrix vascular - transmits electrical signal - - 2 dif types of cells make it up 1) neuron cells (conducts electrical Signals) (10 %) 2) glial cells Cells) (90 %] (supporting brain spinal chord nerves - , , Integumentary system group of organs - : Skin · hair · nails · - Protection ; 1st line of defense 3 - temp. regulation - excretion functions - converts Cholesterol to Vitamin D - sensory reception - Epidermis (outer layer) - Dermis (inner layer) Epidermis - very thin (millimeters) - 4 layers for the most part 1) Stratum Basale (Germinativum) 7 · bottom-most layer contain melanocytes · ) ↳ coloration to skin ↳ protect from UV light nucleus bottom layer · merkel cells - > detect light touch Keratinocytes · ↳ produce Keratin undergoin mitosis in this layer · 2) Stratum Spinosum · langerhans Cell ↳ modified type of white blood all ↳ looks for ) things that don't belong 3) Stratum Granulosum X G cells beginning to · flatten off & dying 4) Stratum corneum · all dead · Keratinocytes dead ; just sacs w/keratin now · lose abt of skin Cells in a lifetime yolbs 5) Stratum Lucidum · last layer only found in thickest areas · btwn Granulosum & corneum · heel & palms Dermis - thicker - 2 layers ; papillary & reticular papillary · ↳ made of areolar CT ↳ hills & valleys * q-tip 4 contains capillaries , nerve endings , meissner corpses (detects light touch ; nerve ending ↳ vascular ↳ top part · reticular ↳ made of dense irregular CT ↳ blood vessels ↳ pacinian corpuscles (larger 9-tip-like nerve ending , detects deep touch) ↳ hair follicle ("bag"that holds hair root) ↳ arrector pili (muscle that lifts up hair) ↳ glands · sebaceous - oil · sudoriferous (swealt - Eccrime * temperature regulation * large surfaces of body Apocrine - * armpit & groin * stress & nervousness * Smelly Misc · subcutaneous tissue ↳ bellow skin ↳ btwn Skin & muscle ↳ all Skin · ceruminous glands ↳ modified Sweat glands ↳only in ears ↳ produce earwax cerumen · skin coloration ↳ melanin ↳ hemoglobin pigment - in blood ↳ carotene in carrots & egg yolks (orangey) - - found in stratum corneum - neels of feet · burns ↳ ist degree only thur epidermis - ↳ 2nd degree - epidermis & partially thru dermis /blisters) ↳ 3rd degree - epidermis , dermis , o + more) Skeletal system · functions protection - - support/framework movement - ↳ wi help of muscles - mineral storage hematopoiesis - ↳ formation of blood cells Cells - Osteocyte ↳ mature bone cell - Osteoblast ↳ cells that build bone - Osteoclast 4) cells that take calcium & Phosphorus out of bone (destroying) Determinants of Bone Growth - heredity hormones - nutrition - - exersize injury - Classification of Bones long - than is wide ↳ longer ) radius ulna , metacarpals phalanges femur etc ↳ , , , , - Short ↳ about as long as wide ↳ carpals , tarsals seasmoid-special ↳ type /Patella ; within/surrounding tendon) flat - ↳ broad & thin ↳ scapula , sternum , cranium bones irregular - , maxilla - > vertebrae Structure of Long Bones - proximal & distal epiphysis ↳ ends diaphysis - ) core/body / ↳ shaft - epiphyseal line (plate when growing ↳ btwn epiphysis & diaphysis - medullary cavity (Canal) > ↳ hollow canal running thru bone spongy bone tissue - ↳ found in epiphysis - > lots of little hores  compact bone tissue - ↳ outlines bone - periosteum ↳ double-walled membrane lining outside of bone ) ↳ outer layer : fiberous connective tissue ↳ inner layer : Osteoblasts & Osteoclasts - Sharpey's fibers ↳ collagen fibers that hold periosteum to compact bone - endosteum ↳ lining inside of bone ↳ I layer ↳ & Osteoclasts osteoblasts -yellow bone marrow found in medulary cavity ↳ ↳ high proportion of fat - red bone marrow ↳ found epiphysis in ↳ does funtion of hematopoiesis - articular cartilage ↳ btwn bones - > prevents bone rubbing on bone Microscopic structure of Bone - Osteon a structural unit of bone ↳ cylindrical · haversian canal (Central canals * up & down * run through ostos · Volkmann's Canal * left & right * bring blood vessels & nerve fibers to haversian cannals · lacuna *"little lakes" Osteocyte · * mature bone cell · lamellae players of osteon * made of collagen fibers * rings · canaliculus * little cracks * connects blood supply to ostions - spongy bone Trabeulae · * incomplete ostions * honey comb shape Development of Bone · ossification ↳ bone development , pre-a post birth - Embryonic (pre-birth ~ 6 weeks) * intramembranous ↳ within membrang ↳ uses membrane (fibrous connective tissue as model) ↳ used for most flat bones · fontanels · areas of incomplete ossification after birth (soft spots) (remaining membrane * endo chondral ↳ within cartilage ↳ uses (hyaline usually) cartilage as model ↳ Why plate is left btwn epiphysis & diaphysis Postnatal Bone Growth · appositional ↳ widening ↳ osteoclasts carving out medullary cavity from inside ↳ Osteoblast building compact bone from outside Interstitial · ↳ lengthening ↳ cartilage divides ↳ bone develops from diaphysis & pushes through epiphysis ) ↳ growth hormone Bone Remodeling ↳ the process of laying down a breaking bone down bone ↳ control of remodeling · hormones 1) hormone Parathyroid - made by parathyroid gland - stimulated to be made when blood calcium levels are low - function : Stimulate Osteoclasts to break down bone to ↑ blood ca levels 2) calcitonin - made by thyroid gland - stimulated to be made when blood calcium level is high - function : take calcium from blood to store in bones · exersize · more bone will be layed down where more stress is received ↳ disorders · osteoporosis · poreous bone Parathyroid · hormone over-doing job · osteomalacia · softening of bone · body doesn't have enough nutrients to form strong bone Joints - where I bones come together provide mobility & stability - - functional classification · synarthroses ↳ fused joint ; immovable · Amphiarthroses - slightly movable ; public symphysis · Diarthroses - > freely movable Stability & Mobility of * joints are inversesy * related Structural Classification of Joints - & looking Whats holding the joints together - 3 types · fibrous ) ↳ bound tog. by Fibrous connective tissue ↳> no joint cavity ↳ rightly bound ; synarthroses ↳ 3 types - sutures - syndemosis swedge of Fibrous connective tissue to restrict movement) - gomphosis (like nail in Socket (socket is (T) · cartilaginous -> bound by hyaline cartilage CT ↳ no joint cavity ↳ z types - synchondroses (fused by cartilage) - symphyses (bones bound by cartilage ; has some give · synovial - > fluid filled jointCavity (synovial fluid) ↳> freely movable ↳ ligaments - bone to bone ↳ tendon - bone to muscle & - more elastic ↳ bursal sacs of synovial fluid - - outside joint - under ligament or * * tendon -) 6 types of synovial joints A 1) Plane (gliding) ↳ carpals & tarsals 2) Hinge ↳ elbow & Knee 3) Pivot ↳ dens (turns neck) 4) condyloid 5)Saddle ↳ btwn phalanges & metacarpals & - thumb carpal & metacarpal 3 W 6) Ball & Socket ) ↳ humurous (ball) & scapula (socket)