Prehistoric Architecture PDF

Pre-Historic Architecture Pre-Historic Architecture ARCHITECTURE, with all its varying phases and complex developments, must have had a simple origin in the primitive efforts of mankind to provide protection against inclement weather, wild beasts, and human enemies. Hunters and fishermen...

Pre-Historic Architecture Pre-Historic Architecture ARCHITECTURE, with all its varying phases and complex developments, must have had a simple origin in the primitive efforts of mankind to provide protection against inclement weather, wild beasts, and human enemies. Hunters and fishermen in primeval times naturally sought shelter in rock caves, and these were manifestly the earliest form of human dwellings ; tillers of the soil took cover under arbors of trees, and from them fashioned huts of wattle and daub ; while shepherds, who followed their flocks, would lie down under coverings of skins which only had to be raised on posts to form tents. Here, then, in caves, huts, and tents we find the three primitive types of human dwellings, the three germs of later architectural developments.  Prehistoric Era The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic), "stone" lit. "old age of the stone") was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865, and refers to a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools. It covers the greatest portion of humanity's time (roughly 99% of human history on Earth, extending from 2.5 or 2.6million years ago, with the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis, to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BC. Prehistoric Housing Materials As humans began to form settlements during the Mesolithic to the Neolithic era, architecture began to branch out into more distinct architectural forms. As human settlements grew, and communal tasks were divided up, cooperation and collaboration meant that more sturdy structures could be constructed. in areas of northern Europe, many structures were made with stone, and as such are still fairly intact to this day. One particularly impressive Neolithic village is Skara Brae, located in the Orkney archipelago of Scotland. Prehistoric Stone Structures Dating back to around 3700 BCE, stone ceremonial structures began to appear across Europe. Circular stone structures known as cromlechs had a ceremonial function, often serving as permanent tombs. Newgrange in Ireland consists of an elaborate system of passage graves that dates back to 3000 BCE, with a series of burial chambers throughout. The burial chambers are made of large rocks that were placed vertically and then covered with smaller rocks and dirt to create a mound, with many of the construction rocks engraved with abstract geometric designs of circles and spirals. Geometric forms and designs in prehistoric architecture Though there was little in the way of interior design 5,000 years ago, the very earliest design elements centered on simple geometric forms. This has been seen in the previously mentioned engravings, but also in the arrangement of large stone megalith ic structures, the most famous of which is Stonehenge in England. Neolithic structures like Stonehenge were likely inspired by circular shapes such as the sun and the moon or are possibly a reference to the cyclical nature of prehistoric life. The passing of the seasons and the godlike appearance of the sun and moon each day and night were likely to be central to the religious beliefs of Neolithic people. ARCHITECTURE TIMELINE  Ancient Civilizations MAMMOTH HOUSE PALEOLITHIC SKARA BRAE NEOLITHIC A prehistoric monument consisting of An underground village on the west an upright megalith, usually standing coast of the island of Mainland, is one alone but sometimes aligned with of the most complete European relics others. of the late Neolithic Period Ancient Civilizations HOWICK HOUSE MESOLITHIC a circle of substantial post holes with charcoal stains in their bases, a number of smaller stake holes, some angled in from outside a hollow, and inside the house a number of shallow hearths filled with charcoal, burnt nutshells and some fragments of bon  Ancient Civilizations MENHIR NEOLITHIC CAIRN NEOLITHIC A prehistoric monument consisting of an upright megalith, usually standing A heap of stones piled up as a alone but sometimes aligned with monument, tombstone, or landmark. others.  Ancient Civilizations TUMULUS NEOLITHIC DOLMEN A tumulus, also known as a burial mound, is a type of NEOLITHIC prehistoric monument that consists of a large, circular a stone monument consisting of a or oval-shaped mound of earth and stones that covers a large flat capstone lying across two or burial chamber. Tumuli were used as tombs in many more vertical stones. Often referred to cultures and were especially common during the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. as a “portal tomb” Ancient Civilizations CHROMLECH NEOLITHIC Circular stone structures known as cromlechs had a ceremonia l function, often serving as permanent tombs. prehistoric architecture burial mounds. A circular arrangement of megaliths enclosing a dolmen or burial mound Ancient Civilizations Stone Henge types MESOLITHIC a circle of substantial post holes with charcoal stains in their bases, a number of smaller stake holes, some angled in from outside a hollow, and inside the house a number of shallow hearths filled with charcoal, burnt nutshells and some fragments of bon BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION Overview Mesopotamian civilizations formed on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq and Kuwait. Early civilizations began to form around the time of the Neolithic Revolution —12000 BCE. Some of the major Mesopotamian civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations. Evidence shows extensive use of technology, literature, legal codes, philosophy, religion, and architecture in these societies.  BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION Six Cradles of Civilization A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where civilization was developed independent of other civilizations in other locations. A civilization is any complex society characterized by the development of the state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond signed or spoken languages (namely, writing systems and graphic arts) OLD WORLD NEW WORLD Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Caral–Supe civilization of coastal Ancient India and Ancient Peru and the Olmec civilization of China are believed to be the Mexico are believed to be the earliest earliest in Afro-Eurasia in the Americas – previously known in Western literature Sustenance: Agriculture Sustenance: Marine Resources THE WEST ASIATIC (ANCIENT NEAR EAST), 4000-1000 B.C.E. The plain of Mesopotamia (Gk. mesos = middle + potamos = river) was irrigated by canals from river to river, and thus the land became fertile enough to support the immense populations round Nineveh and Babylon. Lower Mesopotamia- Such soil, in which no stone was found and no trees would grow, was eminently suitable for the making of bricks, which thus became the usual building material in Babylonia its situation round the river deltas, a region of swamps and floods, besides which torrents of rain fell for weeks at a time, and these conditions were aggravated during the long summer by unhealthy, miasmic exhalations and by swarms of aggressive and venomous insects.  Civilizations Along Rivers By roughly 6000 to 8000 years ago, agriculture was well under way in several regions including Ancient Egypt, around the Nile River; the Indus Valley civilization; Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; and Ancient China, along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. This is because the regular river floods made for fertile soil around the banks and the rivers could also supply fresh water to irrigate crops. It’s no coincidence that as agriculture allowed for denser and denser populations along with more specialized societies, some of the world’s first civilizations developed in these areas as well. Mesopotamia—mainly modern-day Iraq and Kuwait—in particular is often referred to as the cradle of civilization because some of the most influential early city-states and empires first emerged there THE WEST ASIATIC (ANCIENT NEAR EAST), 4000-1000 B.C.E. BABYLONIANS are ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central- southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Iran). It emerged as an Akkadian populated but Amorite-ruled state c. 1894 BC. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was retrospectively called "the country of Akkad Babylonians were polytheistic and worshiped a large pantheon of gods and goddesses. CODE OF HAMMURABI legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East.  CODE OF HAMMURABI Legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best- organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak". The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if... then" conditional sentences. Their scope is broad, including, for example, criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. “AN EYE FOR AN EYE”  West Asiatic Distinct Periods 1.The Babylonian (Chaldaean) 2. The Assyrian period (B.C. 3. The Persian period (B.C. period (c. B.C. 4000-1275). 1275-538). 538-333). Nebuchadnezzar is known for his Assyria was at the height of its power, Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power but persistent difficulties controlling during the reign of Nabonidus in 539 ornate architecture, especially the B.C. Nabonidus was such an unpopular Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Babylonia would soon develop into a king that Mesopotamians did not rise to Walls of Babylon and the Ishtar major conflict. At the end of the defend him during the invasion. Gate. Under his rule, women and seventh century, the Assyrian empire Babylonian culture is considered to have men had equal rights. collapsed under the assault of ended under Persian rule, following a Babylonians from southern slow decline of use in cuneiform and Mesopotamia and Medes, newcomers other cultural hallmarks. who were to establish a kingdom in By the time Alexander the Great Iran. Nimrud was destroyed twice, conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of first in 614 and again in 612 B.C. In Mesopotamia no longer existed and the that final year, Ashur and Nineveh also culture had been long overtaken. fell, and Assyrian rule in the Near East Eventually, the region was taken by the came to an end. Romans in A.D. 116 and finally Arabic Muslims in A.D. 651.  ZIGGURAT The Great Ziggurat was built as a place of worship, dedicated to the moon god Nanna in the Sumerian city of Ur in ancient Mesopotamia. Today, after more than 4,000 years, the ziggurat is still well preserved in large parts as the only major remainder of Ur in present-day southern Iraq. a square or rectilinear terraced platform with a temple at its summit cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, south, east, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N  Early Bronze Age The Great Ziggurat was built as a place of worship, dedicated to the moon god Nanna in the Sumerian city of Ur in ancient Mesopotamia. Today, after more than 4,000 years, the ziggurat is still well preserved in large parts as the only major remainder of Ur in present-day southern Iraq. a square or rectilinear terraced platform with a temple at its summit cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, south, east, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N  ZIGGURAT vs PYRAMID Tiered buildings multi-dimensional designed to give height triangles with sloping to a temple sides built to honor a city's built as tombs for the patron god and to serve pharaohs as a spiritual connection At 146.5 m (481 ft) high with the gods aligned to true north, 21 m and 30 m) high with its square base only Each corner of the 3.4 arcminutes off ziggurat points toward one of the cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) artstation.com  ASSYRIAN PERIOD Palaces of warrior-kings were the chief buildings of Assyria, while temples sink in importance compared with these great palaces The 7th Century Assyrian King Ashurbanipal built his luxurious palace on the banks of the Tigris River, the main water source for the king and his many subjects in the Assyrian capital of Nimrud. Photograph by Heritage Images The Assyrian Empire maintained power for hundreds of years. But in the 600s B.C.E., the empire became too large to maintain, and it fell apart. Even after its fall, the empire’s legacy lived on in the warfare tactics and technologies that were adopted by later civilizations. Assyrian Period  Nineveh Kouyunjik Northern part of Iraq the capital, 25o miles north of Babylon, has remains of three palaces built by Sennacherib (B.C. 705-681), Esarhaddon (B.C. 681–668), and Ashur-bani-pal (B.C. 668–626). They were discovered by Botta (A.D. 842) and Layard (A.D. r845), and the bas-reliefs in the British Museum show not only warlike pursuits, but building operations, while some still bear traces of the action of the fire which destroyed Nineveh in B.C. 609. https://www.imhussain.com/english/newsandreports/5719 Assyrian Period  Calah (Nymroud) Calah was a prominent city located in modern northern Iraq, near the Tigris River. Established in the 13th century BC, its prime was during the reign of King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) when it was named the capital of the Assyrian Empire. The city continued to thrive as a significant hub of politics, culture, and military might under the rule of subsequent Assyrian kings. "From that land he (Nimrod) went to Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Rehoboth Ir, Calah and Resen, which is between Nineveh and Calah; which is the great city." Therefore, Calah, also equated with Nimrud, holds critical biblical artstation.com significance. https://digitalbible.ca/article-page/bible-study-biblical-locations-where-is-calahkalhunimrud- 1699763946379x249955895369413000 Assyrian Period  PERSIAN PERIOD Palaces and tombs at Susa and Persepolis suggest that the Persians adopted certain features from the conquered Assyrians, such as raised platforms, sculptured monsters, slabs of bas-relief, besides glazed and coloured brickwork which it is their glory to have brought to perfection. The Palace Platform, Persepolis is a remarkable structure, 1,500 ft. by 1,000 ft. in extent and 40 ft. above the plain, partly hewn out of the solid rock and partly built up of large blocks of local stone laid without mortar, but held together by metal cramps.  Palace of Xerxes (B.C. 485), The first monument at the right of the propylaea is the Great Hypostyle Hall of Xerxes called apadana* which still have in place 13 mutilated columns, the largest remaining columns still standing in Persepolis. The apadana of Xerxes (485-465 BCE) is still today one of the largest halls that man has ever built. The total area it covers, including porticoes and colonnades, is over 1,000 square meters and its height reaches 20 meters only counting for the height of the columns and their capitals. Its disposition was also extraordinarily original: the whole building was erected on a second base on the level of the terrace, vast galleries acted as the main front porch for the main façade and for two of the lateral walls, and in the middle there was a room full of columns with the typical Persian capital*. https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/persian- column/ THE PERSIAN PERIOD  The Tomb of Darius, Naksh-i-Rustam The Persian royal tombs reflected an unprecedented architectural type. Except for the tomb of Cyrus in Pasagard all kings were buried in the royal necropolis of Naqsh-i-Rustam three kilometers away from Persepolis. The rocky surface was leveled in order to carve the façade of each grave with an immense relief in honor of the King who was buried there. https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/persian-column/ eight miles north of Persepolis, is one of four rock-hewn sepulchres of the great Achaemenian kings, and was probably suggested to Darius (d. B.C. 485) by the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes, which he saw when serving under Cambyses in Egypt. It reproduces the facade, 50 ft. wide, of the small palace of Darius at Persepolis, with four columns of the double-bull type, central doorway with Egyptian-like cornice, and upper compartment in which two rows of figures in relief support a prayer platform surmounted by a bas-relief of the king (8 ft. high) before an altar, with uplifted arm worshipping the sun-god whose image appears above him. THE PERSIAN PERIOD  SUSA The administrative capital of the ancient Persian Empire, has remains of great palaces of Xerxes and Artaxerxes, and here were found by M. Dieulafoy those world-famous friezes of glazed brickwork in green, yellow, and blue, known as the " Lion frieze " and the " Archer frieze," notable instances of the traditional beauty of Persian decoration, and now the treasures of the Louvre Museum, Paris. Image Source: https://louvrebible.org.uk/oeuvre/125/louvre_departement_antiquites_ orientales THE PERSIAN PERIOD  The Tomb of Cyrus, Pasargadae (B.C. 529), Monarch made the capital of Persia, is of unusual design, with its single chamber (10 ft. by 7 ft.) perched on a high stylobate of six steps, not unlike the Lycian tombs or the small Greek temples. This little tomb has been made famous by Strabo, Herodotus, and Pliny, and was visited by Alexander the Great on his way to India, who then saw the treasures, tapestries, and gilded sarcophagus of the king which, on his return, had been desecrated and rifled. What’s unique about this? The mausoleum is a significant historical example of earthquake engineering as it is said to be the oldest base- isolated structure in the world, allowing it great resilience against seismic hazards. It is one of the key Iranian UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as part of the archaeological site of Pasargadae. Source: Wikipedia THE PERSIAN PERIOD  SELEUCID AND SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE (B.C. 312—A.D. 642) The architecture which succeeded that of the Persians is interesting, though not of great importance, and most of our knowledge of the subject is derived from the works by Dieulafoy and Perrot and Chipiez. The Seleucid Dynasty (B.C. 312-280), which succeeded on the death of Alexander, did not produce any noteworthy type, but during the Sassanian Dynasty (A.D. 226-642), when the principal city was Ctesiphon, a number of buildings were erected which form a connecting link between Assyrian architecture on the one hand and Byzantine on the other. SELEUCID AND SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE  SELEUCID AND SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE (B.C. 312—A.D. 642) The Palace, Sarvestan (A.D. 350) The principal feature consisted of a triple-arched portico behind which rose a beehive dome of brick with openings for light and ventilation, and a long barrel vault over each side compartment, reminding one of Assyrian palaces. The Palace, Feruz-abad (A.D. 450) was a structure of some importance, with an entrance leading into three domed halls, beyond which is a court. The transverse section shows the arrangement of the domes, and the roughly formed angular semi-domes which enable the circular domes to be applied to square compartments; while the exterior restored gives an idea of the general appearance of the building. The Palace, Ctesiphon (A.D. 550) must have been an interesting structure, built of colored brickwork, but is now only a ruin, consisting of a great central arched portal about 83 ft. It is indeed considered probable that this great vault of brick is a reproduction of the native architecture formed with bundles of reeds and rammed earth, as built to this day in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. SELEUCID AND SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Egypt: The Old Kingdom. Through later Egyptians describe their early history as emerging after the unification of the Upper and Lower Egypt’s, archaeological evidence suggests that unification was a protracted process that took place over several centuries. Out of this unification there emerged what later Egyptians would themselves call the “Old Kingdom,” with its capital in Memphis. The primitive architecture in the valley of the Nile appears to have consisted of puddled clay and reeds, or of sunbaked bricks, and some of its original character is seen in the later monumental style of stone and granite. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Egyptian monumental architecture, which is essentially a columnar and trabeated style, was mainly employed on pyramids, tombs, and temples, in contrast to the Assyrian. Egyptian temples, approached by impressive avenues of sphinxes—mythical monsters, each with the body of a lion and the head of a man, hawk, ram, or woman—possess in their massive pylons, great courts, hypostyle halls, mysterious chambers, and dark corridors a special character ; for each temple grew according to the increasing requirements of a powerful priesthood, or to satisfy the pious ambition of successive kings.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE https://www.britannica.com/topic/hieroglyph https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/mastaba/ Ancient Kingdom (Dynasties I–XI), B.C. 4400–2466.—Menes, the first dynastic king, is reputed to have founded Memphis in Lower Egypt, and it remained the capital until the " New Empire," though Thebes was growing into prominence. During the Third Dynasty civilization progressed ; living-houses were built of brick and tomb-houses or "mastabas " were made to take the body at full length. The art of writing was practiced, and the hieroglyphic system began.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/mastaba/ Death was an obsession during the Old Kingdom. The whole art of this period revolves around this theme. On the sand platform that stretches along the right bank of the Nile near Memphis, the ancient Egyptians built one of the largest necropolises in the capital of Lower Egypt. These tombs are the mastabas, a name that comes from the Arabic word for a bench (“couch”) of mud because they have, in effect, the shape of a couch. The exploration of the mastabas of the Memphis necropolis has provided the primary documents for the study of the early dynasties. The mastaba tomb was a type of chamber only accessible by a unique door that was supposed to be inhabited by the “spectrum” of the deceased which was reproduced on the wall by paintings or sculptures in relief.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE https://www.britannica.com/topic/hieroglyph Amenemhat I of the Twelfth Dynasty was energetic and enterprising; he brought social order out of anarchy, made a survey of the country, set boundaries to the provinces, carried out irrigation, worked the quarries at Tura, restored the temples and founded the great Temple at Karnak. britannica.com  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE https://www.britannica.com/topic/hieroglyph HATSHEPSUT 18TH DYNASTY- 1478-1458 BC Considered one of Egypt's greatest pharaohs—man or woman—Hatshepsut brought great wealth and artistry to her land. She sponsored one of Egypt's most successful trading expeditions, bringing back gold, ebony, and incense from a place called Punt (probably modern-day Eritrea, a country in Africa). Although there have been many theories over the years as to why Thutmose III tried to blot Hatshepsut's name from history, the most likely reason was that her reign had been unconventional britannica.com and departed from tradition  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments Thothmes III was one of the greatest of the Pharaohs and is famous alike for foreign wars and home reforms, while he rebuilt and decorated many temples. Thothmes IV (B.C. 1450) cleared away the sand from the Great Sphinx, as recorded on the tablet between its paws. Amenophis III built the Temple at Luxor, dignified that at Karnak by pylons and sphinxes, and erected the famous Colossi of Memnon. Amenophis IV daringly broke away from dynastic and religious traditions, deserted Thebes, and founded his capital at Tel-el-Amarna with a great palace and a temple to the sole god Aten, whose symbol was the solar disc." A heretic Pharaoh is a striking anomaly in a country bound by such strong chains to tradition and orthodoxy. Rameses I (B.C. 1350), founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty, the most brilliant epoch of Egyptian art, commenced the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. Seti I carried on wars without and temple-building within, continued his father's  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen ( c. 1341 BC – c. 1323 BC), “KING TUT” The youngest Pharaoh at 9 and died at 19. was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who ruled c. 1332 – 1323 BC during the late Eighteenth Dynasty. Tutankhamen wasn't an especially important king, but his tomb was the only royal burial found intact in modern times. The tomb was important because it let archaeologists record what an Egyptian king's tomb looked like and learn more about ancient Egypt.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments A hypostyle hall is a building with a flat roof supported by many rows of columns or pillars. The term comes from the Greek word hypostyle, which means "under pillars" wikipedia Rameses I (B.C. 1350), founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty, the most brilliant epoch of Egyptian art, commenced the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. Seti I carried on wars without and temple-building within, continued his father's  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments Rameses II (B.C. 1330), surnamed " the Great " and the " Pharaoh of the Oppression," exploited the labour of the Israelites to build store cities. He finished and erected many temples, such as the Rock Temple at Abu-Simbel, the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, and the Ramesseum at Thebes, but craftsmanship had begun to deteriorate. Rameses III (B.C. 1200) was a religious devotee who made such offerings to the priests that about one-sixth of the land belonged to the temple revenues. The name of Rameses was borne by nine successive kings, whose power waned as that of the priests of Ammon waxed strong. It is significant of the times that, while the temples of the gods were still respected, the tombs of the kings were desecrated and rifled of their treasure, and so the Twentieth Dynasty tottered to its end.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments Rameses II (B.C. 1330), surnamed " the Great " Rameses III (B.C. 1200) was a religious devotee who made and the " Pharaoh of the Oppression," such offerings to the priests that about one-sixth of the land exploited the labour of the Israelites to build store belonged to the temple revenues. The name of Rameses was cities. He finished and erected many temples, such borne by nine successive kings, whose power waned as that of as the Rock Temple at Abu-Simbel, the Hypostyle the priests of Ammon waxed strong. It is significant of the times that, while the temples of the gods were still respected, Hall at Karnak, and the Ramesseum at Thebes, but the tombs of the kings were desecrated and rifled of their craftsmanship had begun to deteriorate. treasure, and so the Twentieth Dynasty tottered to its end.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments Rameses II (B.C. 1330), “One of the greatest Pharaoh” —he lived between 90 and 96 years—gave him ample opportunity to marry wives and beget children. He had over 200 wives and concubines and over 100 children, many of whom he outlived.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE PHARAOHS and their known accomplishments The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, a period of good government and trade prosperity, saw a revival of the art of the early period. Psammetichus I (B.C. 666) encouraged the immigration of Greeks, who brought in new ideas. Then, after a period of Assyrian invasions, Egypt again extended her Mediterranean trade, developed the arts and crafts of bronze casting, pottery, and portrait painting, and attained a high standard in commercial and legal procedure. Necho (B.C. 612) attempted a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile, but the undertaking was only completed by Darius (B.C. 521-486). From B.C. 525 Egypt was a Persian province for about 100 years under Cambyses the conqueror, Darius the administrator, Xerxes the tyrant, and other rulers.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE The Ptolemaic Period (B.C. 332-30) The Ptolemaic Period (B.C. 332-30).— Alexander the Great, king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, THIRD OF HIS NAME...who rescued the Egyptians from their hated oppressors, was hailed by the priests as the son of Ammon. He founded Alexandria as the capital, and it became the centre of Greek culture. On his death in B.C. 323, Egypt fell to his general, Ptolemy, and for three centuries the lower valley of the Nile was the seat of a prosperous and powerful kingdom. Greek customs and methods of government crept in, but the Ptolemies upheld the gods, built temples of the native type at Dendera, Esna, Edfu, and Philae, patronised native art, and married the daughters of Egypt. The reign of Ptolemy II is famous for the Pharos, or light-house, the history by Manetho, and the Greek version of the Septuagint. Ptolemy V was so great a benefactor of the temples that the priests accorded honours to him and his ancestors in a decree which has proved the " open sesame " to our knowledge of Ancient Egypt ; for this threefold inscription in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek writing on the Rosetta Stone, dug up in A.D. 1798 and now in the British Museum, provided a long-sought key to those wonderful hieroglyphic records of Egyptian history. Struggles with Rome were continuous, and on the death of Cleopatra Egypt became a Roman province.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE The Ptolemaic Period (B.C. 332-30) 5. The Roman Period (B.C. 30-A.D. 395).—69 BC: Pharaoh Cleopatra Egypt under Caesar entered on another phase of prosperity, and many Roman emperors took Egyptian titles and even inscribed them, in the Egyptian manner, in cartouches. Thus did the Imperial masters of the world seek to find favour with this important grain-producing province. From this period dates the famous " Pharaoh's Bed " at Phihae. Hadrian twice included Egypt, as he did Britain, in his Imperial visits. Under Constantine, Roman control in Egypt extended even to religion, when in A.D. 324 Christianity was declared to be the religion of the Empire ; the Bible was translated into Coptic, but controversies and troubles soon overtook the Christians in Egypt. When Theodosius the Great issued his edict in A.D. 378 many temples were either diverted to Christian use or churches were built within their precincts—a curious mingling in architecture of the old and the new. Thus a change passed over the spirit of Old Egypt and dealt the death-blow to her indigenous and traditional architecture, which no longer served its original purpose and so ceased to be a living growth and became merely a relic of the past.  EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE The Ptolemaic Period (B.C. 332-30) More from the egyptian sphynx and pyramids: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hF-AmB6hFcU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CskfvgEItPA