History of Computing (PDF)

HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself.  Men in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing machine for counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools. Mo...

HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself.  Men in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing machine for counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools. Most African countries, most especially West African countries, traditionally used cowrie shells to perform mathematical calculations  In Nigeria, the Yoruba people developed the "Odu Ifa," which is a binary number system that was used for divination, computation, and other purposes.  The abacus, which was developed in Asia between 2700 and 2300 before the common era (BCE)  John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, developed the logarithm in 1614 for the easy computation of numbers  In 1632, William Oughtred, a clergyman and a mathematician, invented the slide rules based on John Napier's ideas. Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician and Philosopher, built the first calculating machine, which later became commercially viable between 1642 and 1644.  The machine is named Pascaline, Adding machine or Arithmetic machine. Pascaline was good in addition and subtraction but elementary in multiplication and division 1  HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar of France, in 1820, made it a task to build an arithmometer. The arithmometer was the first precision commercial mechanical calculator that could accomplish elementary mathematical processes such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in addition to performing complex tasks.  In 1804, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented another mechanical machine called the Jacquard loom, which marked the beginning of the automated system  Charles Babbage, a scientist, inventor, and mathematician, developed the difference engine in the 1820s.  Lady Lovelace, an English mathematician and author, also known as Duchess of Lovelace, was an associate of Babbage, who invented the Analytical Engine in the 19th century. She was well known as the first computer programmer because of her close work with Charles Babbage 2  HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  Herman Hollerith, an American inventor who was employed in the United States (US) Census Bureau in the year 1880 as a statistician, developed the first electromechanical tabulating machine displayed for the US Census Bureau in the year 1890.  The first electronic digital computer was manufactured in the late 1930s and early 1940s by John Atanasoff, a physicist and mathematician, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College (now Iowa State University). The name of the computer was Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). It was developed to find solutions to systems of simultaneous linear equations 3  The First Generations of Computers (1940s – 1950s)  Computers first emerged in the 1940s, and their first generation spanned until the 1950s.  These sets of computers were big, costly, and used vacuum tubes for their operations  This era of computing brought about the invention of the first digital electronic computers, which were used for scientific and military purposes.  Machine and assembly languages were introduced during the first generation of computers, which were characterized by their large size, high cost, limited performance, and slow operational speed.  The first generation of computers, which included the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), Universal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I), International Business Machines (IBM), and Ferranti Mark I 4 The First Generations of Computers (1940s – 1950s) 5  Characteristics of the first generation of Computers Vacuum tube:  The first generation of computers was made up of glass tubes called vacuum tubes that could be used as electronic switches.  The vacuum tubes were very big and needed much energy to function and were used for computations and switching operations.  They are often prone to failure due to the intensity of temperatures produced. Machine Language:  During the first generation of computers, machine language, the lowest-level programming language, was utilized.  This language consisted of binary code, a sequence of 0s and 1s, which is the only language that the computer can comprehend.  The code is time-consuming and difficult to understand. The binary code had to be manually keyed into the computer. Magnetic Drum Memory:  The first generation of computers achieved the storage of data through the use of magnetic drum memory, which was a non- volatile memory that used magnetic fields to keep output information.  Magnetic drums, while slow, have limited storage capacity. 6  Characteristics of the first generation of Computers Punch Cards:  Punch cards were used to input data and instruction into the first generation of computer systems.  A punch card was a piece of rigid paper that had holes perforated in precise places to signify data or instructions.  The punch cards were input into the computer, and the computer would read the holes to control the data or instructions. Limited Applications:  The first generation of computers could not be used for many applications.  They were only used for scientific and military needs, such as the computation of complex mathematical equations and the simulation of the behavior of physical systems  Batch Processing:  In the first generation of computing, all the input data are collected and then processed together.  The process of collecting and then processing input together is called batch processing. 7  Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )  The second generation of computing started from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s  In this second generation of computing, vacuum tubes were replaced with smaller and more dependable transistors.  The second generation of computers was smaller, faster, and more efficient.  Magnetics core memory, which replaces the vacuum tube memory and drum memory, was faster and more dependable.  However, machine and assembly languages were used in UNIVAC 1.  At the same time, IBM 704 was developed in 1954 to use transistors instead of vacuum tubes and had a magnetic core memory that allowed for larger storage capacity and faster processing.  IBM 704 was also the first computer to have a Fortran compiler, which gave room for programmers to write high-level language code that could be translated into machine language. 8  Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )  Some examples of computers developed in this period are IBM 7090 and IBM System/360, Control Data Corporation 6600 (CDC 6600), UNIVAC 1108, and Digital Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-8 (DEC PDP8).  Many programming languages were developed in the second generation of computers.  Such programming Languages are Formula Translation (FORTRAN), developed in 1954 and released in 1957 by John Backus and his team at IBM; Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL), produced by Grace Hopper in 1959 as a business application programming language; and Algorithmic Language (ALGOL) developed in 1958 by a committee of computer scientists, among whom were John Backus and Peter Naur. 9  Characteristics of the second generation of Computers Use of Transistors:  The most significant development of the second generation of computers was the replacement of vacuum tubes with transistors.  Transistors were well reduced in size, faster, and more dependable than vacuum tubes, and they gave room for computers to be made much smaller than earlier generations. Magnetic Core Memory:  Magnetic core replaced the Vacuum Tube Memory, Delay Line Memory, and Drum Memory, which were used in the first generation of computers to store data.  Magnetic core memory that came into vogue in the second generation of computing was faster and more dependable than the memory technologies of the first generation, and it gives room for the storage of more data in a smaller space. Batch Processing:  During the second generation of computers, Batch Processing was utilized as a means of running programs. This involved processing assignments of data together in a single batch, as opposed to processing them individually or in real-time.  The method is used when dealing with large assignments of data that can be automatically executed, such as processing large-scale scientific and engineering simulations, besides commercial applications, such as payroll processing. 10  Characteristics of the second generation of Computers High-Level Programming Languages:  High-Level Programming Languages such as Formula Translation (FORTRAN) and Common Business-oriented languages (COBOL) were developed on second generation computers.  These languages open the door to easy programming of complex codes by programmers.  It also commenced the development of contemporary programming languages. Operating Systems (OS)  Operating systems such as IBM's OS/360 that permit many users to run programs on the same computer at the same time were developed when computer technology shifted from vacuum tube-based to transistor-based systems 11 Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s ) 12  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s)  The third phase or era in the evolution of computing technology began from the early 1960s to the 1970s.  It is generally believed that the introduction of the IBM System/360 mainframe computer in 1964 marked the beginning of the third phase in the evolution of computing technology, while the commencement of the use of the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which was released in 1971, marked the end of the third era in the evolution of computing technology.  The third phase in the evolution of technology brought in the development of integrated circuits, which gave an avenue for greater reduction and the formation of smaller and more powerful computers.  Thus, the use of transistors was replaced with the use of integrated circuits (ICs), which permits the development of smaller and more powerful computers. The idea of time-sharing, which permits many users to access a single computer at the same time, was introduced by the computers of the third era.  There were lots of improvements in hardware and software technology, which led to more powerful, accessible, and user-friendly computers.  The first personal computer (PC) Altair 8800, based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor and came with 256 bytes of memory designed by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), was introduced in 1975. 13  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s)  Examples of third-era computers are IBM System/360, Digital Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-11 (DEC PDP-11), Cray-1, HP 3000, and Virtual Address eXtension (VAX-11). Figure 1.3 displays an example of the third generation of computers.  The third-generation languages (3GL) were the first to be used for structured programming  They were developed in the 1960s and were closer to natural language than the previous generations and made programming easier for nonexperts. The C Programming Language was created at Bell Labs in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie, while Pascal was invented in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth.  COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC are other programming languages that played a significant role in advancing the development of third-generation computers.  Many advances in the field of programming were linked to 3GL.  Some of them are structured programming, the ability to handle large data sets, and improved error checking.  Third-generation languages (3GLs) have paved the way for the emergence of more advanced programming languages like Python, Ruby, and Java. 14  Characteristics of second-generation computers The features of third-generation computers.  Integrated circuits  Third-generation computers were characterized by their use of integrated circuits, which revolutionized computing by allowing multiple transistors and other components to be combined on a single silicon chip.  This breakthrough greatly reduced the size and complexity of computers while simultaneously improving their reliability and performance. Operating systems  This generation of computers developed an operating system that made it easier to use and program computers  Two widely used operating systems during the third generation of computing were IBM's OS/360 and DEC's TOPS-10 High-level programming languages  During the advent of 3rd generation programming languages (3GL), several highlevel programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC were developed  These languages enabled programmers to write more expressive and concise code, thus making programming easier and more accessible to a wider range of people.  In addition, the development of software and maintenance is very easy. It also assisted in widening the user base of computers. 15  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s) Time-sharing:  With the introduction of third-generation computers, multiple system users were able to access a computer simultaneously.  This was a significant improvement over earlier generations, where only one user could access the computer at a time.  This increased accessibility and made computing more efficient, allowing for greater collaboration and productivity among users.  The method that enables multiple computer system users to access a computer simultaneously is known as timesharing. Mainframes and minicomputers:  There was massive development of mainframes and minicomputers in the thirdgeneration computers. 16 Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s) 17  Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s )  The fourth generation of computers saw sporadic changes in computer technology from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, with the development of microprocessors and personal computers revolutionizing the industry  It featured the production of integrated circuits, which made it possible to miniaturize and mass-produce computer components, leading to a significant increase in computing power.  Thus, it was possible to build computers using large-scale integration (LSI) and very largescale integration (VLSI) technology.  This knowledge permits the development of microprocessors, which made computers even smaller and more powerful. Personal computers (PCs) were also introduced in this era.  Examples of fourth-generation computers are IBM Personal Computer (PC), IIBM System/370, Apple Macintosh, Commodore 64 (C64), and Atari 800.  The fourth-generation programming languages known as 4GLs were developed to allow the production of complex business applications.  These high-level languages were developed in the 1980s so that nonprogrammers could develop applications that would handle large amounts of data. Examples are Structured Query Language (SGL), Visual Basic, and PowerBuilder, Ada. 18  Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s ) Microprocessors:  The discovery of microprocessors gave birth to the building of fourth-generation computers in the late 1970s and mid-1980s.  Several microprocessors were built by different companies to contribute to the development of fourth-generation computers.  The Intel 8008 and 8080, which were the foundation of the first personal computers, were made available in 1972 and 1974, respectively.  Motorola produced the 6800 microprocessor in 1974, and Zilog announced the Z80 microprocessor in 1976.  Motorola 6800 microprocessor enjoyed a lot of patronage from early home computers and video game consoles, while Zilog microprocessors gained popularity among early personal computers, such as the TRS-80 and the ZX Spectrum.  Microprocessors give room for better processing power and speed.  They are much smaller and more effective than the large, bulky vacuum tubes and transistors used in earlier generations of computers. 19  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers Increased memory capacity:  The fourth-generation computers witnessed the development of dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) technology, which made it possible to construct extra memory in computers, which then gave room for more complex and sophisticated programs to be run in addition to permitting the formation of smaller, more reliable, and cheaper memory chips.  The introduction of microprocessors in fourthgeneration computers brings into play a single chip integrated into the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, combining two vital computing components into one, which led to the development of microprocessors.  This increased the general memory capacity and allowed faster processing speeds and reduced the need for distinct memory components. Operating systems :  The development of microprocessors, integrated circuits, and personal computers led to the advancement of more powerful operating systems (OS) with greater functionality, efficiency, and user-friendliness.  During that time, several operating systems emerged, including MS-DOS, Macintosh System Software, Unix, MS Windows, and OS/2, each offering unique features and capabilities to users.  MS-DOS was made available in the 1980s and used by IBM-compatible systems.  It uses a command-line interface and permits users to run programs, manage files, and access hardware facilities.  In 1984, Apple introduced Macintosh System Software, which boasted a graphical user interface (GUI), allowing users to manage files through dragand-drop and access features via a menu bar. 20  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers  Unix operating system was introduced in the 1970s and was generally used in the 1980s in workstations and minicomputers. Featuring a command-line interface, it was designed as a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system  MS Windows was first made available in 1985, and it was issued as a GUI for IBM-compatible personal computers.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the popularity of the operating system increased with the release of Windows 3.0 and 3.1, which introduced advanced graphics support, virtual memory, and other features, making it more widely adopted. OS/2 was produced by the combined efforts of IBM and Microsoft in 1987 to pave the way for an advanced operating system for personal computers.  It was developed to be a multi-tasking, multi-user operating system with GUI. However, it was not generally accepted, hence suspended in 2001. User-friendly interfaces:  The graphical user interface, which was first developed by Xerox in the 1970s and became popular in the 1980s, made fourth- generation computer usage easier for average individuals.  Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers (WIMP) interface was introduced in the 1980s, gained general acceptance among Windows OS users, and featured a desktop with icons representing programs, files, and folders, as well as drop-down menus and pointers to navigate.  Command Line Interface (CLI), though less user-friendly than the GUI, was still in use in the 4GL. Touchscreens were developed in the 1980s, though not used until later.  In all, GUI permits users to relate with the computer using icons, windows, and menus rather than having to type in complex commands. 21  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers Networking:  Advanced networking technology was developed in the fourth generation of computers, which gives room for computers to interface, communicate, and share facilities more easily than ever before  Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) in 1973, enabling computers to connect through a shared communication protocol for resource and data exchange. Internet Protocol (IP), which allows communication between different devices over a network, was first developed in the late 1970s by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn as a way to connect multiple networks, creating a larger network of networks.  Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) were introduced during this period for businesses to connect their computers and share data across diverse locations. Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction:  A lot of programming languages at a higher level of abstraction, as discussed earlier, were developed in fourth-generation computers.  Complex software applications became easier to write programs on, with the development of Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction, such as C, C++, Java, Structured Query Language (SQL), Lisp, Prolog, and BASIC, among others. 22  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s)  The idea of starting the fifth generation of computing, called the "Fifth Generation Computer Project," was started by the Japanese government with the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry and some important Japanese technology companies, such as Fujitsu, NEC, and Hitachi, taking part in the development in the 1980s.  The goal was to develop a novel generation of computers that could use cutting-edge artificial intelligence, natural language processing (NLP) capabilities, and logic programming techniques.  The project that was expected to be on for ten years was terminated in the 1990s due to their inability to achieve their goals.  They were not able to achieve their goals because of the increasing cost of the project and the helplessness of the researchers to develop practical and useful applications for the technology they were researching. Despite the stoppage of the project, it was able to promote the development of computer science and artificial intelligence research, most especially in the area of logic programming and knowledge representation.  Furthermore, it inspired research in parallel processing and distributed systems, which became a field in computer science later. Some of the fifth generations of computer Languages (5GLs) are not so distinct. 23  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s)  The Languages were advancements in the fourth generation of computer languages.  Some examples of programming languages of the fifth generation of computers are Prolog, Concurrent Prolog, Mercury, Official Production System 5 (OPS5), LISt Processing (LISP), Miranda, Structured Query Language (SQL), Statistical Analysis System (SAS), Adaptive Design Automation (ADA) and VHSIC Hardware Description Language (VHDL) where VHSIC stands for Very High-Speed Integrated Circuit. 24  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) Artificial Intelligence (AI):  One of the features of the fifth-generation computers is the ability to depend on parallel processing, natural language processing, and expert systems, including the use of machine learning algorithms.  In other words, the computers of this generation should be able to do things that human beings normally do, such as knowledge of natural language, identifying patterns, and making decisions. Natural Language Processing (NLP):  NLP is a specialized study in artificial intelligence and part of the goals of fifthgeneration computers which were not achieved.  However, the research stimulated future development in the field. The study area gives the capability to comprehend and give answers to human language in a manner that is similar to human-to-human interaction. Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS)  KBS is an important component of AI and a fifth generation of computers that aims to use a database of knowledge and reasoning methods to replicate the problemsolving abilities of a human expert in a specific area.  It is intended to process natural language and use AI to reason and learn since it has a knowledge base and an inference engine.  In all, KBS has the power to save and retrieve huge quantities of information and use it to reason and make decisions. 25  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) Parallel Processing:  Parallel processing is an important characteristic of fifth-generation computers, which allows several instructions to be performed at the same time and also analyze large volumes of data.  It divides the work into smaller sub-units and performs them on many processors. Distributed Computing:  This is a vital goal of the fifth generation of computers to produce machines that are highly intelligent, flexible, and interactive.  In distributed computing, machines are aimed to accomplish a wide variety of jobs that need a large amount of computing power, memory, and speed. I  It gives room for a large number of computers to be linked together to form a single, powerful system, working together to find a solution to a problem.  In all, the fifth generation of computers gives the opportunity to connect and utilize the processing power of multiple computers, allowing for largescale computations and data analysis. Expert Systems:  This is a component of the fifth-generation computers that are aimed at imitating the decision-making functions of an expert in a specific area, using knowledge and reasoning methods to give solutions to problems and make decisions.  It is expected to assist users in finding solutions to complex problems by giving guidance and suggestions based on their knowledge of the specific area.  In all, one can expect systems to model and automate the decision-making processes of human experts in various fields. 26  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) User-Friendly Interfaces:  The definition of user-friendly interfaces of the fifth-generation computers was not absolutely agreed upon  However, it is known as an intelligent computer and is expected to have user-friendly interfaces.  The interfaces are developed to be intuitive, efficient, and pleasant to use, that is, easy to use and understand, even for non-expert users.  Thus, the fifth generation of computers ought to relate with users in a natural and casual manner, using natural language processing, speech recognition, and other advanced skills  In other words, users can interact with the computer in a more natural and intuitive way, such as through voice commands and touch screens. 27