History Gr12 Collapse of USSR.pdf

Topic Unit X XX 1 Events leading to the end of the Cold War Key question: Why did the Cold War end? The failing Soviet System During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was a closed political and economic system. From the late 1960s, it was clear the economic performance of the USSR was failing; during t...

Topic Unit X XX 1 Events leading to the end of the Cold War Key question: Why did the Cold War end? The failing Soviet System During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was a closed political and economic system. From the late 1960s, it was clear the economic performance of the USSR was failing; during the 1970s its industry stagnated and its agriculture regularly failed. Technological advances in the West – especially in the field of electronics – also left the Soviet Union and its Allies lagging behind, impacting on many areas of life, especially military affairs. For nearly 40 years the leaders of the Soviet Union and many of the countries in Eastern Europe seemed, from the West’s point of view, to be ‘backward-looking’ and caught in the trap of Soviet ideology. One explanation was that these leaders were simply too old: 3 successive Soviet leaders – aged respectively 76, 80 and 83 – had died in office in the 3 years between 1982 and 1985. Change did come, however, in 1986 when a new Soviet leader was elected. Mikhail Gorbachev Mikhail Gorbachev: a 54-year old lawyer & the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, became the new leader. Elected new Soviet leader in 1986. Big changes would follow both in the Communist Bloc and, later, across the world. He seemed totally different from his predecessors, and was charming, well-travelled, ambitious and articulate. However, the initial Western response was very cautious – they saw his quick rise to power as a result of the very closed system. His plan was 1st to reform the Soviet system and, eventually, to preside over the break-up of the very political system that had produced him. Despite enjoying enormous power, Gorbachev’s ability to bring about change was constrained by two main factors: the dire state of the Soviet economy and the increasingly restless situation in Eastern Europe. 130 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Unit XX 1 What led to the end of the Cold War and the start of a new world order? 1 Competing economic systems USSR had a centralised state-run economy (Socialist / Communist) with an autocratic one-party governance system. Central Planning: The co-ordination and control of all economic activities are under the authority of the government, operating in a ‘closed system’. It relied on a bureaucracy that was in charge of setting all national goals – especially important were economic ones. Weaknesses: this approach was inefficient and needed extensive on-going subsidies to keep the system going. It was also very slow to respond to personal choice, destroying initiative and entrepreneurship. Results of this system: National economic performance suffered due to inefficiency. Investment in new infrastructure declined together with investment in research. The quality of life for citizens in the USSR Western economy and in Eastern Europe fell further behind that experienced in the West. System in the West was different: Led to economic and political reforms mainly free-market economy in the USSR. (capitalism) and democracy. 2 Changing relations with the West From the 1970s onwards, ‘freemarket economics’ changed the political landscape world-wide. As government withdrew from the economy, business became more profitable and more international. Importantly for Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War, the market approach to economic management was supported by two Western leaders who played an important role in the ending of Communism: Britain’s Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher (1971), and US President, Ronald Reagan (1981). Their elections reflected the significant change both in economic and political thinking that had taken place worldwide (i.e. the shift towards free economic policy). Both were also suspicious of Communism and, initially, of Gorbachev. The two superpower leaders met several more times and each meeting marked another step towards ending the hostilities that had divided them for 40 years. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 131 Unit XX 1 3 The symbolic importance of the Berlin Wall The Cold War was characterised by a number of crises, each of which brought the Superpowers close to a nuclear war. The first occurred in Berlin, Germany, which was divided at the end of the Second World War into 4 zones, controlled by victorious wartime powers: the US, Soviet Union, France and Great Britain. But the start of the Cold War, and the alliance between the British, French and Americans, meant that the city was effectively divided into two – one half was in the West; the other half was in the East. The division of the city led to constant quarrelling, and in 1961 the East German government began building a wall between the two halves, which would eventually stretch for 155 kilometres. With the obstacles of concrete, barbed wire, armed guards and their dogs, over the years many people tragically lost their lives trying to cross the wall from East to West. ‘The Wall’ became a metaphor for the global Cold War conflict between East and West, and was a symbol of the global divide. Although Berlin’s famous Brandenberg Gate was located in the East German side of the wall, it was used by Western leaders to protest what they thought was wrong with Communism and to praise Western Capitalism. In June 1987 Reagan challenged the sincerity of Gorbachev’s proposed reforms at this gate. 4 Southern Africa Gorbachev’s political shifts did echo in Southern Africa. November 1986: Gorbachev met with the then president of the African National Congress (ANC), Oliver Tambo, who was accompanied by Thabo Mbeki. In this first ever meeting between the ANC and the leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev made it clear that the Soviet Union was strongly opposed to supporting revolutions. This signalled an entirely new direction in the Soviet Union’s foreign policy, which would alter the direction of the region enormously in the years to come. 132 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Topic Unit 2 XX X 1 The End of the Cold War – The events of 1989 Key question: How did the ending of the Cold War and events elsewhere help to end apartheid in South Africa? Gorbachev’s many challenges Communism created four urgent challenges for Gorbachev: Great need to change the thinking in the Soviet Union, especially in the bureaucracy, which was fixed and rigid. Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were closely linked: they all faced both economic stagnation and social and political failure. Due to Cold War rivalry, the Soviet Union could no longer support revolutionary movements in the Third World. The war in Afghanistan (invaded in December, 1978) was too costly for the USSR. Gorbachev had to gain the support of the Soviet military to end the war. Gorbachev initiated reform at home through two policies: Perestroika aimed at reforming the Soviet economy. Glasnost (supposed to reinforce perestroika) It ended censorship, aimed to create public debate, e.g. freedom of the press. The two new policies were intended to support each other: through glasnost, people were encouraged to speak about the economic changes which had been brought by perestroika. glasnost and perestroika were not aimed at bringing an end to Soviet Socialism BUT to make it stronger. If successful, Gorbachev hoped the Soviet Union and its allies would have the same economic success that was enjoyed in the West. Although Gorbachev hoped that the one policy could build upon the other INSTEAD the two policies together → ended the entire system of Soviet Socialism. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 133 Unit XX 21 Events of 1989 Many events occurred worldwide that led to the end of the Cold War. 1 The USSR is dissolved: As Gorbachev’s policies were implemented, and hardship followed, civil unrest broke out between various groups in the Caucasus and, later, in the Baltic region. As old forms of nationalism emerged in these countries, the demands for independence from the Soviet Union grew. Following Gorbachev’s attempt to establish a Federation of States, in 1990, several of the Soviet states (including Russia, then under the leadership of Gorbachev’s bitter rival, Boris Yeltsin), declared their independence from the Soviet Union. On Christmas Day, 1991 the USSR was dissolved after 74 years. Each of its 15 states became independent. = an important occurrence in the ending of the Cold War. 2 Eastern Europe: Perestroika and glasnost also created demands for change in Eastern Europe, which was under much of the same kinds of stress that the Soviet Union faced. Eastern Europe’s economy was under great pressure: This included a weakening manufacturing performance, agricultural failure and an inability to keep up with changing technology. This had an important impact in Poland, where new political problems had developed. Poland had a difficult history with Russia: in the past, Russia had been invaded twice through Poland, while the nationalism of the Poles always threatened the unity of the Soviet Bloc too. In 1978 the election of a Polish Pope, John Paul II, and his visit to Poland the following year, helped to change the political debate in Poland and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. Debate spread about issues like whether Polish Nationalism could survive in the Soviet Bloc and if democracy was possible within the Soviet Bloc. Along with this interest in Polish politics came increased strikes in the country, highlighting worker’s rights and the recognition of trade unions. In 1979 strikes drew attention to the trade union Solidarity and its leader (an electrician called Lech Wałesa), who were both defended throughout the West. Faced with this pressure, the Polish Communist Party: granted rights to trade unions removed press censorship released dissidents provided access to the state-controlled media to the Catholic Church. 134 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Unit XX 21 In return the strikers agreed to recognise the authority of the local Communist Party and Poland’s alliance with the Soviet Union. Also, Solidarity had become a mass-movement and began to act like a party in opposition to the Polish Communist Party. Importantly, the power of Solidarity had largely broken the hold of Communism over the Polish political system although temporarily, Poland was still firmly within the Soviet Bloc. But days after an agreement on the recognition of Solidarity was signed, the Polish government changed its mind. A national strike was called and, as it grew, the Soviet Union warned that the “pillars of the socialist state” in Poland were under threat. Then, the armed forces of the Warsaw Pact gathered on Poland’s borders to supposedly restore the authority of Communism in an East European country. A few months later Poland’s leadership changed when a military man, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, became the country’s Prime Minister. Concerned about a possible invasion by the Warsaw Pact, the Prime Minister, the leader of Solidarity and a Catholic Cardinal, Josef Glemp, met. WHY? to discuss a way forward for Poland, but couldn’t reach an agreement. In December 1981, Jaruzelski declared a state of emergency, arresting 6 000 people, including the Solidarity leaders. For the next two years, he tried to prevent a Soviet invasion. The state of emergency ended in 1983. Jaruzelski didn’t want to move away from the principles of Communism. Yet the country remained locked in political crises with further demonstrations and riots called by Solidarity. This instability remained until Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union – it was clear that the Polish people were ready for What was happening in the Eastern Bloc? the kind of changes that In most other places in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev wanted to leaders peacefully stood down as Communism make both in the Soviet disintegrated around them. In Romania, Eastern Union and in Eastern Europe’s most notorious dictatorship, however, Europe. the country’s President, Nicolae Ceausescu (and Months before the Berlin his wife) were put in front of a firing squad and Wall came down, Jaruzelski shot. The hard line Communist leader ran a brutal won a general election by police state and embarked on policies that were a small margin, but the destroying the country’s economy and forcing Socialist era in Poland was people to endure harsh food and power shortages. over. As communism fell in the other Soviet satellite With the wider collapse of states, Ceausescu continued to reject any softening Communism throughout of the Warsaw Pact. Eastern Europe, Jaruzelski resigned the presidency, paving the way for the election of Lech Wałesa to Poland’s highest office. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 135 Unit XX 21 3 The Fall of the Berlin Wall: The German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, was one East European country that strongly resisted Gorbachev’s reforms. Why did GDR resist Gorbachev’s reforms? East Germany enjoyed the highest standard of living in the Soviet Bloc, because the West German government supported the growth of infrastructure and development in its eastern neighbour. The GDR also enjoyed a strong relationship with the Soviet Union. i.e. The leaders who would dominate politics in East Germany were trained in Moscow. Another reason was that the president of the GDR, Erich Honecker, was a dedicated Communist. HOWEVER In the mid-1980s: Honecker started to follow a contradictory policy. Compared with his predecessors, he developed stronger links with West Germany, which was under the leadership of Helmut Kohl (who had previously taken a strong stand against the Soviet Union). As a result of Honecker’s softer approach, exchanges began to take place between politicians on both sides of the German divide. It was in this atmosphere that perestroika and glasnost became policy. As Gorbachev’s reforms reached East Germany, demonstrations began in the streets of Leipzig, Dresden and East Berlin. Honecker wanted to quash the demonstrations but would not do so without Soviet approval. This would not happen under Gorbachev’s leadership. In the late-summer of 1989, many East German citizens began to leave the country through Hungary’s open border with its neighbour, Austria. Only a month before the Berlin Wall fell, Honecker resigned his office. He was briefly succeeded by the leader of the East German Communist Youth, the 52-year-old, Egon Krenz. When the Wall fell: Communist ideology was replaced with new understandings and explanations of the world. With this, the old ways of doing things were gone forever. The idea that the Berlin Wall had fallen changed understandings in almost every corner of the world. Undeniably, an event of global significance had taken place. In a speech on 19 December 1989 delivered by Helmut Kohl before more than 100 000 people in the East German city of Dresden, he promised that he would seek unification of the country and also funding for East Germany. 136 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Unit XX 21 4 The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale: It was clear that events in the wider region, following the fall of the Wall, were moving in interesting new directions. The consistent pressure that America had put on South Africa because of its illegal occupation of Namibia had moved negotiation forward on a 70-year-old conflict. But what had shifted to enable apartheid’s leaders to respond positively to this pressure? Recap of events that began in 1987 in south-eastern Angola The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, which became famous as an important turning point in the ending of apartheid, began as a minor conflict of Angola’s 27-year civil war. The initial exchange in Cuito Cuanavale was between two sides within the Angolan civil war: the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA) faction, led by their rebel leader, Jonas Savimbi, and the Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho (MPLA) faction which was led by the Angolan President, José Eduardo dos Santos. The government was supported by Cuban troops who had been involved in a war for the country since the country’s independence in 1975. Their presence undoubtedly made the events in Angola so central to the Cold War. July 1987: A series of battles took place at Cuito Cuanavale in Angola between the apartheid defence force (SADF), and the army of the Angolan government (FAPLA). By November 1987, the SADF, which supported Savimbi, had driven back the FAPLA attack and was in a good position to launch an attack that many believed could have destroyed them. Without consulting his long-standing Soviet allies, Cuba’s Fidel Castro, whose troops had been in Angola, sent some of his best troops and pilots to counter the South Africans. Reinforced by Cuban troops and superior air force, the FAPLA troops pushed back the forces of UNITA and drove the SADF back. Castro’s move was significant because, even though the battle for Cuito would continue for another six months until May 1988, it changed the balance of power and forced SA to rethink its position. It was clear that the SADF had lost its long-standing position of military strength in southern Angola. This was because the Cubans had superior aircraft (Russian MiGs). © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 137 Unit 2 Outcomes of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale These circumstances pushed the apartheid government to seek peace in Angola and to grant independence to Namibia. Apartheid officials met with representatives of the US, then with Cuban representatives, and then with the Angolan government → in an effort to seek an agreement on the future of the Cuban troops in Angola and over the future of the disputed territory: South West Africa (Namibia). In the end, the Cubans agreed to withdraw from Angola, which was seen as a Cold War victory, especially for the USA. SA also agreed that its own forces would be withdrawn, which saved the apartheid government from growing embarrassment and enabled it to focus on the need to reform at home. Also, the apartheid government agreed to the independence of Namibia. A Peace Accord reflecting these understandings was signed in New York on 22 December 1988 – 11 months before the Berlin Wall fell – and the independence of Namibia was granted on 21 March 1990. As Nelson Mandela has said, Cuito Cuanavale “was the turning point for the liberation of our continent – and of my people – from the scourge of apartheid”. 5 FW de Klerk as a reformer: SA’s official representative at the Namibian Independence celebrations was the man who would formally end apartheid: SA’s new president, FW de Klerk who had only succeeded PW Botha a few months earlier. Because De Klerk came from a family that had a history in National Party politics, there was not much in De Klerk’s background to suggest that he was a reformer. Experience suggests that leaders who have strong links to a party, like De Klerk and Gorbachev, can often make the biggest changes in a society. This is because citizens trust them more than they do other politicians. Shortly after he became president in September 1989, he changed his Cabinet by removing hardliners who had been strong supporters of the Cold War-thinking that had been behind the policies of his predecessor. De Klerk then allowed a number of protest marches to take place despite the state of emergency. The first of these, held in Cape Town on 13 September 1989 Witnessed a number of anti-apartheid leaders – including Archbishop Desmond Tutu marching for peace. 138 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Unit 2 A month later, De Klerk also released a number of prisoners from Robben Island. These included Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela’s friend, fellow prisoner and long-standing political colleague. De Klerk and Mandela finally met on 13 December 1989, just more than a month after the Berlin Wall came down. Their initial talks focused on a document that Mandela had sent to the new president. Although it was reported to be tense, it was a good meeting because both leaders wanted to end apartheid. → BUT the big public step came on 2 February 1990, when FW de Klerk, apartheid’s last president, opened parliament and made his famous speech: The ANC, PAC and SACP and a number of other minor political groups were unbanned. + Prisoners serving sentences belonging to these groups would be released – this included Nelson Mandela. + The restrictions under the State of Emergency on the media and on organisations (like the UDF) were lifted. These events signalled the end of the Cold War’s long hold over SA politics; Communism was no longer perceived as a threat. Reactions to FW de Klerk’s speech The ANC, then in exile in Zambia, were highly suspicious of De Klerk’s speech, thinking that his promise to release Nelson Mandela was a trick. Others in the country were worried that the unbanning of the ANC and the SACP would increase the level of violence within the country. BUT the speech was a signal that South Africans were going to seek a peaceful solution to all that had previously divided them. Formally, however, De Klerk’s speech was only completed nine days later on 11 February 1990, when Nelson Mandela was released from prison after being detained for 27 years. → The years ahead for Mandela and De Klerk would not be easy though, but during the country’s search for democracy neither gave up on their determination to see an outcome that would be acceptable both to South Africans and the world. Four years later SA re-joined the world, which was very different now that the Cold War had ended. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 139