history gist.pdf

फ्री study हे तू आज ही TELIGRAM APPS download करे (Google play फ्री study हे तू आज ही TELIGRAM install करे (google play store ) LOGIN करे & OPEN करे SEARCH OPTIONS मे “MEENA" type करे फिर एक link show करे गा जजसे टच करे फिर join पर click करके ग्रप...

फ्री study हे तू (Google play फ्री study (google play store ) LOGIN करे OPTIONS मे “MEENA" जजसे टच करे फिर ग्रप ू मे उपलब्ध News PAPER /EMPLOYMENT NEWS/Current news/Hindu vocabulary /All book notes/All ncert/ignou/vardman uni/bed/engi /computer science almost 10,000 िये TELIGRAM INSTALL करिे यदि पहले से TELIGRAM STUDY ALL IN ONE NEWSPAPERS MOVIE & NOVEL EMEMPLOYMENT NEWS फ्री study हे तू (Google play फ्री study (google play store ) LOGIN करे OPTIONS मे “MEENA" जजसे टच करे फिर ग्रप ू मे उपलब्ध News PAPER /EMPLOYMENT NEWS/Current news/Hindu vocabulary /All book notes/All ncert/ignou/vardman uni/bed/engi /computer science almost 10,000 िये TELIGRAM INSTALL करिे यदि पहले से TELIGRAM STUDY ALL IN ONE NEWSPAPERS MOVIE & NOVEL EMEMPLOYMENT NEWS PUBLISHED BY : KALINJAR Address : Sonu Dr. Phone : 011 E-mail : [email protected] R.ORG k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t th e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d i n t h i s b o o k bear no responsibility for any damage resulting inaccuracy in the book. Edition : 2015 Price : ` 100/- ISBN: 9789382732785 Our Regional Offline Distributors s Bhumi Marketing, Lucknow s Jaiswal Book Shop, Allahabad s Alka News Agency, Patna s Vikas Book Agency, Hyderabad s UBSPD, Delhi s Saivenkatramanna, Hyderabad s Universal, Chandigarh this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means of the publishers. issues/issue related to the publication of this book shall be subject to the of their respective owners. FOR ONLINE COACHING Visit our Websites IAS Exam— www.iasexamportal.com SSC Exam— www.sscportal.in IBPS Exam— www.bankpoclerk.com WWW.24X7COACHING.COM Contents Age Civilization.............................................. 1 ..................................................................... 10 Magadhan Empire.......................................... 19 ...................................................................... 28 ........................................................................... 35 ....................................................................... 41 in the first Half of the 19th Century............. 52 ....................................................................... 60 and social reform after 1858......................... 69 .................................................................... 84 .................................................................. 95 Civilization 1 1 CIVILIZATION Harappan culture is noticeable in its mature and flourishing stage at all these six places. It is also found in its mature phase in the coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each one of which is marked by a citadel. The later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat. In addition to these, Dholavira lying in the Kutch area of Gujarat shows Harappan fortification and all the three phases of the Harappan culture. These phases also appear in Rakhigarhi which is situated on the Ghaggar in Haryana and is much bigger than Dholavira. Town Planning and Structures The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro each had its own citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. According to it, roads cut across one another alomost at right angles, and the city was divided into so many blocks. This is true of almost all Indus settlements. Banawali The most important public place of Mohenjo-daro seems to be the Great Bath, comprising the tank which is situated in the citadel mound. It is an example of beautiful Gist of NCERT (History) were covered with bricks and sometimes with stone slabs. The street drains were equipped with manholes. Perhaps no other Bronze Age civilization gave so much attention to health and cleanliness as the Harappan did. Agriculture The Indus people produced wheat, is barley, rai, peas, etc. They produced two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banawali. In addition to this they produced sesamum and mustard. As 1800 B.C., the people of Lothal used rice whose remains have been 15.23 × 6.03 found. Foodgrains were stored in huge granaries in both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa of the and possibly in Kalibangan. Probably, cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in granaries for the payment of wages as well as for use during emergencies. This can be said on the analogy of Mesopotamian cities where wages were paid in barley. The indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Because cotton was first peoduced in this are Greeks called it sindon, which is derived from Sindh. Domestication of Animals Hrappan Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Ox, buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated, and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed. They also kept asses and camels, which were obviously used as beasts of burden. Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjo-daro and from a doubtful terracotta figuring from Lothal. The remains of the horse 3 from south India. The Harappans were also experts in bead-making. The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was made glossly and shinning. Trade Trade was important in the life os the Indus people. The Harappans carried on con- siderable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc, within the Indus culture zone. However, their cities did not possess the necessary raw ma- terial for the commodities they produced. They did not use metal money. Most prob- ably they carried on all exchanges through barter. In return for finished goods and pos- sibly foodgrains, they procured metals from the neighbouring area sby boats and bullock- carts. They practised navigation of the coast of the Arabian Sea. They knew the use of wheel, and carts with solid wheels were in use in Harappa. The Harappa had commecial links with one area of Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran. They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with Cen- tral Asia. Their cities also carried commerce various tools with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many Harappan seals have been discovered in Mesopotania, and it seems that A piece of the Harappans imitated some consmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia. found The Mesopotamia records from about were used 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations of wool and with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. The Mesopotamian texts speaks of two intermediate trading sta- of masons. tions called Dilmun and Makan, which lay between Mesopotamia and Meluha. Dilmun can probably be identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf. the last Gist of NCERT (History) Harappan writing on stone seals and other objects. Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not write long inscriptions. Most inscriptions were recorded on seals, and contain only a few words. Altogether we have about 250 to 400 pictographs, and in the form of a picture each letter stands for some sound, idea or object. the Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic. Weights and Measures Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show that in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64, 160, 320 and 640. Interestingly the tradition of 16 has continued in India till modern times and till recently 16 annas made one rupee. The harappans also knew the art of measurement. We have come across sticks inscribed with measure marks; one of these is made of bronze. Harappan Pottery The Harappans were great experts in the use of the potter’s wheel. We come across numerous pots painted in various designs. Harappan pots were generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles. The images of men also appear on some pottery fragments. Seals: The greatest artistic creations of the Harappan culture are the seals. About 2000 seals have been found, and of these a great majority carry short in-scriptions with pictures of the one-horned bull, the buffalo, the tiger, the rhinocreros, the goat and the elephant. Images: The Harappan artisans made 1923, it has beautiful images of metal. A woman dancer made of bronze is the best specimen. Except for a necklac she is naked. We get a few pieces 5 sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods. Earthquakes caused changes in the course of the Indus which led to the inundation of fee hinterland of Mohenjo- daro. And still others point out that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans, but there is very little evidence for this. and 1900 The consequences of the disintegration of the largest Bronze Age cultural entity are still to be clarified. We do not know whether the urban eclipse led to the migration of merchants and craftsmen, and the dissemination of the elements of Harappan technology and way of life in the countryside. Something is known about the post-urban situation in Sindh, Punjab and Haryana. We find agricultural settlements inside the Indus region, but their connection with the preceding culture is not clear. We need clear and adequate information. ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA Original Home and Identity It Difficult to say that all the earliest Aryans belonged to one race, but their culture was more or less of the same type. They were distinguished by their common language. They spoke the indo-European languages, which are current in changed forms all over Europe, Iran and the greater part of the Indian subcontinent Originally the Aryans seem to have lives somewhere in the steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia. Their earlist life seems to have been mainly postoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. Although the Aryans used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. Its swiftness enabled them and some allied people to make Gist of NCERT (History) called naditama or the best of the rivers in the Rig Veda. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in Indian subcontinent is called the Land of the Seven Rivers. Tribal Conflicts We hear of many defeats inflicted by Indra on the enemies of the Aryans. In the Rig Veda Indra is called Purandara which means that he was the breaker of forts. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses, and intorduced them for the first time into West Asia and India. The Aryan soldiers were probably equiped also with coats of mail (vaiman) and better arms. According to tradition, the Aryans were divided into five tribed panchajana but there might have been other tribes also. The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans, and they were supported by priest Vasisththa. The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata, which apperas first in the Rig Veda. The Bharata ruling clan was opposed by a host of ten chiefs, five of whom were heads of Aryan tribes and the remaining five of non-Aryan people. The battle that was fought between the Bharatas on the one hand, and the host of ten chiefs on the other is known as the Battle of Ten Kings. This battle was fought on the river Parushni, identical with the river Ravi and it gave victory to Sudas and estab- lished the supremacy of the Bharatas. Of the defeated tribes, the most Important was that of the Purus. Subequently the Bharatas joined hands with the Purus and formed a new rul- ing tribe called the Kurus. The Kurus com- bined with the Panchalas, and they together established their rule in the upper Gangetic basin where they played an important part in later Vedic times. 7 Several tribal or the clan-based assemblies such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana are mentioned in the Rig Veda. They exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But the two most important assemblies were the sabha and the samiti. These two were so important that the chiefs or the kings showed eagerness to win their-support. In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Vishvamitra. Vishvamitra composed the gayatri mantra to widen the Aryan world. The next important function- ary seems to be the senani, who used spears, axes, swords, etc. We do not come across any officer concerned with the collection of taxes. Probably the chiefs received from the people voluntary offerings called bnali. Presents and spoils of war were perhaps distributed in some Vedic assemblies. The Rig Veda does not mention any officer for administering justice. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground is called Vrajapati. He led heads of the families called kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis, to battle. In the beginning, the gramani was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit settled, the gramani became the head of the village, and in course of time he became identical with the Vrajapati. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal Gist of NCERT (History) assemblies. They could offer sacrifices along with their husbands. We have an instance of five women who composed hymns although the later texts mention 20 such women. We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. There are no examples of child-marriage, and the marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17 Social Divisions The Rig Veda mentions arya varna and dasa varna. The tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share of the booty, and they naturally grew at the cost of their kinsmen, which created social inequalities in the tribe. Gradually the tribal society was divided into three groups - warriors, priests and the people - on the same pattern as in Iran. The fourth division called the schudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period, because it is mentioned for the first time in the tenth Book of the Rig Veda, which is the latest addition. In the age of the Rig Veda differentiation based on occupations had started. Bat this division was not very sharp. We hear of a family in which a member says: “I am a poet, my father is a physician, and my mother is a grinder. Earning livelihood through different means we live together...” We hear of gifts of cattle, chariots, horses, slaves, tec. Unequal distribution of the sopils of war created social inequalities, and this helped the rise of princes and priests at the cost of the common tribal people. But since economy was mainly pastoral and not food-producing, the scope for collecting regular tributes from the people was very limited. We do not find gifts of land and even those of cereals are rare. We find domestic slaves but not the wage-earners. 9 to be the god of plants and intoxi-cating drink is named after him. The maruts personify the storm. This we have a large number of gods., who represent the different forces of nature in one form or another, but are also assigned human activities.We also find some female divinites such as Aditi, and Ushas who represented the appearance of the dawn. But they were not prominent in the time of the Rig Veda; in the set-up of the period the male gods were far more imp[ortant than the female. The dominant mode of worshipping the dos was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices. Prayers played an important part in Rig Vedic times. Both collective and individual prayers were made. Originally every tribe or clan was the votary of a special god. It seems that prayers were central place offered to gods in chorus by the members of a whole tribe. This also happened in the case of sacrifices. Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (jana). Offerings of vevetables, barely, etc. were made to gods. But in Rig Vedic times the process was not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial formulae. They asked mainly for praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth, considered health, etc. 2 Gist of NCERT (History) THE LATER VEDIC PHASE life of the people in the first half of the first millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, combined and thus formed the Rum people. In the beginning they lived between the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati just on the fringe of the doab. Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portion of the doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. Gradually they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle portion of the doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi, and the upper and middle portion of the doab. The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi, and the upper and middle parts of the doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru tribe is important for the battle of Bharata, which is the main theme of the great epic called the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to have been fought around 950 B.C. between, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result 11 in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh. For the first time the Vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in the doab. It is called vrihi in the Vedic texts, and its remains recovered from Hastinapur belong to the eighth century B.C. The use of rice is recommended in Vedic rituals, but that of wheat only rarely. Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later Vedic people to lead a settled life. Excavations and explorations give us some idea about settlements in later Vedic times. Widespread Painted Grey Ware sites are found not only in western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, which was the Kuru-Panchala area but also in the adjoining paras of Punjab and Haryana, which was the Madras area and in those of Rajasthan, which was the Matsya area. Also we can court nearly 700 sites, mostly belonging to the upper Gangetic basin. Althoug the term nagara is used in later Vedic texts we can trace only the faint beginnings of towns towards the end of the later Vedic period. Hastinapur and Kaushambi near Allahabad) can be regarded as primitive towns belonging to the end of the Vedic period. They may be called protourban sites. Political Organization In later Vedic times Rig Vedic popular assemblies lost importance, and royal power increased at their cost The vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. They came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer permitted to sit on the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and brahmanas. The formation of bigger kingdoms made the chief or the king more powerful. Tribal Gist of NCERT (History) the administration was possibly carried on the village assemblies, which may have been controlled by the chiefs of the dominant clans. Social Organization The later Vedic society came to be was the divided into four vernas called the brahmans, rajanyas or kahatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. The growing cult of sacrificed enormously added to the power of the brahmanas. chief or the The vaishyas constituted the common people, and they were assigned to do the producing functions such as agriculture, cattle-breeding, etc. Some of them also worked as artisans. Towerds the end of the to perpetuate Vedic period they began to engage in trade. The vaishyas appear to be the only tribute- ayers in later Vedic times, and the brahmanas post generally and kahatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the vaishyas. This was done with, the help of the priests who also fattened at the cost of people or the vaishyas. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature: they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony and the recitation of the gayatri mantra and with this began the imposition of disabilities on the shudra. Generally the later Vedic texts draw a line of demarcation between the three higher orders on the one hand, and the shudras on of taxes the other. There were, nevertheless several public rituals connected with the coronation an officer of the king in which the shudras participated, of his presumably as survivors of the original Aryan priest, people. Certain sections of artisans such as rathakara or chariotmaker enjoyed a high lower level, 13 creator, came to occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic pantheon. Some of the other minor gods of the Rig Vedic period also came to the forefront. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times, and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some objects began to be worshipped as symbols of vidinity; signs of idolatry appear in later Vedic times. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god of the shudras. People worshiped gods for the same material reasons in this period as they did in earlier times. However, the mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large scale and, especially the desctruction of cattle wealth. The guest was known as goghna or one who was fed on cattle. Sacrifices were accompanied by formulae which had to be carefully pronounced by the sacrificer. The sacrificer was known as the yajamana, the performer, of yajna, and much of his success depended on the magical power of words uttered correctly in the sacrifices. In addition to cows, which were usually given as sacrificial gifts, gold, cloth and horses were also given. Sometimes the priests claimed poetions of territory as dakshina, The Shatapatha brahmana states that in the ashvamedha, north, south, east and west all should be given to the priest. Towards the end of the Veclie period began a strong reaction against priestly domination, against cults and rituals, Gist of NCERT (History) attached to birth in the varna system. The kshatriya reaction against the domination of the priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed various privileges, was one of the causes of the origin of new religions. Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, and Gautama Budha, who founded Buddhism belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both disputed the authority of the brahmanas. But the real cause of the rise of these new religions lay in the spread of a new agricultural economy in north-eastern India. In the middle Gangeic plains, large-scale habitations began in about 600 B.C., when iron came to be used in this area. The use of iron tools made possible clearance, agriculture and large settlements. The agricultural economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and it could not flourish without animal husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of new agriculture. But if the new agrarian economy had to be stable, this killing had to be stopped. The period saw the rise of a large number of cities in north-eastern India. We may refer, for example, to Kaushambi near Allahabad, Kusinagar (in Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh). Banaras, Vaishali (in the newly created district of the same name in north Bihar), Chirand (in Saran district) and Rajgir (situated at a distance of about 100 km south- east of Patna). Besides others these cities had many artisans and traders, who began to use coins for the first time. The earliest coins belong to the fifth century B.C., and they are called punch-marked coins. They circulated 15 became an ascetic. In the thirteenth year, when he had reached the age of 42, he attained kaivalya. Through kaivalyahe conquered misery and happiness. Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina, i.e. the conqueror, and his followers are known as Jainas. He propagated his religion for 30 years, and his mission took him to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, etc. He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at a place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir. According to another tradition, he was born in 599 B.C. and passed away in 527 B.C. Doctrines of Jainism Jainism taught five doctrines: (i) do not commit violence, (ii) do not speak a lie, (ii) do not steal, (iv) do not acquire property, and (v) observe continence (brahmacharya. It is said that only the fifth doctrine was added by Mahavira: the other four were taken over by him from previous teachers. Jainism attached the utmost importance to ahmsa or non-injury to living beings in later times, Jainism was divided into two sects: shvetambaras or those who put on white dress, and digmbaras or those who keep them-selves naked. Jainism mainly aims at the attainment of freedom from worldly bonds. No ritual is required for acquiring such liberation. It can be obtained through right knowledge, right faith and right action. These three are considered to be the Three Jewels or triratna of Jainism. Jainnism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture for its followers because both involve the killing of living beings. Eventually the Jainas mainly confined themselves to trade and mercantile activities. Gist of NCERT (History) Jaina monastic establishments called basadis sprang up in Karnataka and were granted land by the king for their support. Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth century B.C., and in the first cenury B.C. it enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela who had defeated the princes of Andhra and Magadha. Contribution of Jainism Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the varna order and the ritualistic Vedic religion. The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit language mainly patronized by the brahmanas. They adopted Prakrit language of the common people to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi, and texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in Gujarat at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of Education. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas heed the growth of this language and its literature. Many regional languages developed out of Pakrit languages, particularly Shauraseni, out of which grew of Marathi language. They contributed to the growth of Kananads, in which they wrote extensively. Gautam Budhda and Buddhism Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contrmporary of Mahavira. According to tradition he was born in 563 B.C. in a Shakya kshatriya family in Lumbini in Nepal near Kapilvastu, which is a identified with Piprahwa in Basti district and close to the foothills of Nepal. Gautama’s father seems to have been the elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed the republican clan of the Shakyas. His mother was a princess from the Koshala dynasty. Thus, like Mahavira, Gautama also belonged to a noble family.At 17 be taken as a kind of reovlution in the history of Indian religions. It particularly won trie support of the lower orders as it attacked the varna system. People were taken into the Buddhist order without any consideration of caste. Women also were admitted to the sangha and thus brought on par with men. In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and democratic. The use of Pali, the language of the peopel, also contributed to the spread of Buddhism. It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines among the common people. Gautama Buddha also organized the sangha or the religious order, whose doors were kept open to every body, irrespective of caste and sex. The only condition required of the the monks was that they would faithfully observe the rules and regulations of the sangha. Once they were enrolled as members of the Buddhist Church they had to take the vow of continence, poverty and faith. So there are three main elements in Buddhism: Buddha, sangha and dhamma. The monarchies of Magadha, Koshala and Kaushambi and several republican states and their people adopted this religion. Two hundred years after the death of the Buddha, the famous Maurya king Ashoka embraced Buddhism. This was an epoch- making event. Through his agents Ashoka spred Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka, and thus transformed it into a world religion. Even today Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Tibet and parts of China and Japan, profess Buddhism Although. Importance and Influence of Buddhism Despite its ultimate disppearance as an organized religion, Buddhism left its abiding mark on the history of India. The Buddhist Gist of NCERT (History) Buddha, the second deals with the rules to be observed by members of thesangha, and the third presents the philosophical exposition of the dhamma. In the first three centuries of the Charistian era, by mixing Pali with San- skrit the Buddhists created a new language which is called Hybrid Sanskrit. The literary activities of the Buddhist monks continued even in the Middle Ages, and some famous Apabhrams writing in east India were composed by them. The Buddhist monasteries developed as great centres of learning, and can be called-residential universities. Mention may be made of Nalanda and Vikramashila in Bihar, and Valabhi in Gujrat. Buddhism left its mark on the art of ancient India. The first human statues worshipped in India were probably those of the Buddha. From the first century A.D. onwards the panel images of Gautama Buddha began to be made. The Greek and the Indian sculptors worked together to create a new kind of art on the north-west frontier of India, which is known as the Gandhara art. For the residence of the monks rooms were hewn out of the rocks, and thus began the cave archtecture in the Barabar hills in Gaya and in western India acround Nasik. Buddhist art flourished in the Krishna delta in the south and in Mathura in the north. 3 19 MAGADHAN EMPIRE eastern Uttar Pradesh and had its capital at Shravasti, which is identical with Sahet-Mahet on the borders of Gonda and Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh. But we see the beginnings of a mud fort. Koshala contained an important city called Ayodhya, which is associated with the story in the Ramayana. Koshala also included the tribal republican territory of the Shaky as of Kapilvastu. The capital of Kapilavastu has been identified with Piprahwa in Basti district. Lumbini, which lies at a distance of 15 km from Piprahwa in Nepal served as another capital of the Shakyas. In an Ashokan inscription it is called the birthplace of Gautama Buddha and it was here that he was brought up. In the neighbourhood of Koshala lay the republican clan of the Mallas, One of the capi- tals of the Mallas lay at Kushinara where Gautama Buddha passed away. Kushinara is identical with Kasia in Deoria district. Fur- ther west lay the kingdom of the Vatsas, along the bank of the Yamuna, with its capi- tal at Kaushambi near Allahabad. The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down at Kaushambi. Kaushambi was chosen because of its loca- tion near, the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna. We also hear of the older states of the Kurus and the Panchalas which were situated in western Uttar Pradesh, but they by no longer enjoyed the political importance Gist of NCERT (History) 544 B.C. to 492 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Ajatashatru (492-460 B.C.). Ajatashatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. Throughout his reign he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion. This provoked against him a combination of Kashi and Koshala. There began a prolonged conflict between Magadha and Koshala. Ultimately Ajatashatru got the best of the war, and the Koshalan king was compelled to purchase peace by giving his daughter in marriage to Ajatashatru and leaving him in sole possession of Kashi. Although his mother was a Lichchhavi princess, this did not prevent him from making war against Vaishli. He created dissensions in the ranks of the Lichchhavis and finally destroyed their independence by invading their territory and by defeating them in battle. It took him full 16 years to destroy Vaishali. Eventually he succeeded in doing so because of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults. He also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attahced, and it facilitated mass killings. The Magadhan empire was thus enlarged with the addition of Kashi and Vaishali. Its king Ajatashatru faced a stronger rival in the ruler of Avanti. Avanti had defeated the Vatsas of Kaushambi and now threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger Ajatashatru began the fortification of Rajgir. The remins of the walls can be still seen. However, trie invasion did not materialize was at in his lifetime. at that time. Ajatashatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 B.C.) His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the 21 speaks of the existence of a kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the region of Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese terai. In all likelihood, Chandragupta was a member of this clan. He took advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya, who is known as Kautilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Maurya dynasty. The machinations of Chanakya against Chandragupta’s enemies are described in detail in the Mudrarakshasa, a drama written by Vishakhadatta in the ninth century. Several plays have been based on it in modern times. Justin, a Greek writer, says that Chandragupta overran the whole of India with an army of 600,000. But Chandragupta liberated north-western India from the thraldom of Selucus, Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Orissa and Bengal but also western and northwestern India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil nadu and parts of north-easrtern India the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west they held sway over certain areas which were not included even in the British empire. Imperial Organization The Mauryas organized a very elaborate system of administration. We know about it from the account of Megasthenes and the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He lived in the Maurya capital of Pataliputra and wrote According an account not only of the administration of born of the city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya empire as a whole. The account of Gist of NCERT (History) Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara, whose reign is important for continued links with the Greek princes. His son, Ashoka, is the greatest of the Maurya rulers. According to Buddhist tradition he was so cruel in his early life that he killed his 99 brothers to get the throne. But since the statement is based on a legend, it may well be wrong. His biography, prepared by Buddhist writerters, is so full of finction that it cannot be taken seriously. Ashokan Inscriptions The history of Ashoka is reconstructed on the basis of his inscriptions. These incriptions, numbering 39, are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Separate Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts and the royal Minor Pillar Edicts. The name of Ashoka occurs only in copies of Minor Rock Edict found at three places in Karnataka and at one on. in Madhya Pradesh. , All the other inscriptions mention only devanamptya piyadasi, dear to gods, and committee leave out the word Ashoka. The Ashokan committees inscriptions are found in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Altogether they and death, appear at 47 places, and their total versions number 182. They were generally placed on ancient highways. Composed in Prakrit, they Chandra- were writtne in Brahmi script in the greater of part of the subcontinent. But in its north- western part they appeared in Aramaic language and Kharoshthi script, and in the 30,000 cav- Afghanistan they were written in both Aramaic and Greek scripts and languages. He is the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions which carry royal orders. The inscriptions throw light on the career of Ashoka, his external 23 appointed a class of officers known as the rajukas, who were vested with the authority of not only rewarding people but also punishing them, wherever necessary. Internal Policy and Buddhism Ashoka was converted to Buddhism as a result of the Kalinga war. According to tradition hs became a monk, made huge gifts to the Buddhists and undertook pilgrimages to the Buddhist shrines. The fact of his visiting the Buddhist shrines is also suggested by the dhamma yatras mentioned in his inscriptions. According to tradition the Buddhist council (Sangiti) was held by Ashoka and missionaries were sent not only to south India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma and other countries to covert the people there. Brahmi inscriptions of the second and first centuries B.C. have been found Sri Lanka. Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself, and this was the ideal of paternal kingship. He repeatedly asked his officials to tell the subjects that the king looked upon them as his children. As agents of the king, the official were also asked to take care of the people. Ashoka appointed Dhammama-hamatras for propagating dharma among various social groups including women. He also appointed rajukas for the administration of justice in his empire. He disapporved of rituals, especially those observed by women. He forbade killing certain birds and animals, and completely prohibited the slaughter of animals in the capital. He interdicted gay social functions in which people indulged in revelries. Ashoka’s Place in History It is said that the pacific policy of Ashoka rained the Maury a empire, but this Gist of NCERT (History) independent in their respective areas after the retrirement of the king in 232 B.C. Similarly, the policy could not convert his neighbours, who swooped on the north- western frontier of his empire within 30 years of Ashoka’s exit from power in 232 B.C. THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE Background AFTER THE break-up of the Maurya empire, the Satavahanas and the Kushans as Brashmi, emerged as two large political powers. The Satavahanas acted as a stablizing factor in the Deccan and south to which they gave political unity and economic prosperity on the strength of their trade with the Roman to foist his empire. The Kushans performed the same role the other in the north. Both these empires came to an and even end in the middle of the third, century A.D. On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, whiclvestablished its sway over a good part of the former dominious of both the Kushans and Satavahanas. This was the empire of the Guptas, who may have been of vaishya origin. Although the Gupta empire was not as large as the Maurya empire, it kept north India politically united for more than a century from A.D. 335 to 455. The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar at the end of the third century A.D. Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in that state. If we leave out some feudatories and private individuals, whose inscriptions have been mostly found in Madhya Pradesh, did not make Uttar Pradesh will stand out as the most important area in respect of the finds of the Gupta antiquitiews. Hence Uttar Pradesh 25 end around A.D. 230 and then a good part of central India fell under the rule of the Murundas, who were possibly the kinsmen of the Kushans. The Murundas continued to rule till A.D. 250. Twenty-five years later, in about A.D. 275, they dynasty of the Gupta came to power. Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-334) The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I. He married a Lichchhavi princess most probably from Ne- pal, which strengthened his position. The Guptas were possibly vaishyas, and hence marriage in a kshtriya family gave them pres- tige. Chandragupta I seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta era in A.D. 319-20, which marked the date of his accession. Later many

Document Details

Tags

Related

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue