History Finals Study Guide PDF

Chapter 9 Political Landscape Before Mauryan Dynasty Aryan Rule: India was divided into small kingdoms, similar to China’s Warring States period. Persian Influence Darius the Great (520 B.C.E.): ○ Conquered the northwest part of India. ○ Hindu Kush was t...

Chapter 9 Political Landscape Before Mauryan Dynasty Aryan Rule: India was divided into small kingdoms, similar to China’s Warring States period. Persian Influence Darius the Great (520 B.C.E.): ○ Conquered the northwest part of India. ○ Hindu Kush was the most prosperous region during his reign. Greek Invasion Alexander the Great (327 B.C.E.): ○ His invasion caused political chaos and instability in India. ○ Reference Videos: Alexander’s impact Extended discussion Mauryan Dynasty (321-185 B.C.E.) Chandragupta Maurya: ○ Unified India after Alexander’s invasion. ○ Established the Mauryan Dynasty. Kautilya (Chanakya): ○ Key advisor to Chandragupta. ○ Authored the Arthashastra, focusing on politics, economics, and military strategy. ○ Advocated for strong leadership and efficient governance. Ashoka the Great Grandson of Chandragupta: ○ Considered the greatest Mauryan ruler. ○ Established the capital at Pataliputra, a major trading hub near the Ganges River. Conversion to Buddhism: ○ Following the Battle of Kalinga, he felt guilt over the violence and embraced Buddhism. ○ Actively spread Buddhism; reference video: Ashoka’s Edicts. Pataliputra Significance: ○ Major ancient trading city and capital of the Mauryan Empire. Stupa  Definition: ○ Dome-shaped structure in Buddhism for housing relics of the Buddha. ○ Used for meditation and symbolizing Buddhism. Stupa at Sanchi Historical Importance: ○ Originally built by Ashoka; served as a meditation temple and educational institution. ○ Featured four Lion Pillars at each entrance, representing the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism Cultural Appeal: ○ Buddhism attracted followers due to its beliefs not being rooted in social classes, promoting inclusivity. ○ Reference video: Buddhism Overview. Megasthenes (350-290 B.C.E.) Background: ○ Greek ambassador to India; documented Indian geography, culture, and the caste system during Chandragupta’s reign. ○ Reference video: Megasthenes. Downfall of the Mauryan Dynasty Economic Crisis: ○ Following Ashoka’s death, the empire faced an economic downturn. ○ Issues with taxation and high costs led to frequent currency devaluation. The Gupta Dynasty (320-550 C.E.) Founded by Chandra Gupta I: ○ Different from Chandragupta Maurya; established a decentralized government unlike the Mauryan centralized system. ○ Reference video: Gupta Dynasty Overview. Nalanda University Establishment: ○ Founded in the 5th century under Kumaragupta; a renowned educational institution. ○ Provided education in Buddhist philosophy, logic, medicine, and the arts. ○ Attracted scholars globally, including from China, Korea, and Tibet. Advancements in Math and Science (Gupta Era)  Notable Contributions: ○ Introduction of the Hindi-Arabic numeral system. ○ Concept of zero and calculations related to pi. ○ Understanding of the solar year; early algebraic equations. White Huns (Hephthalites) Nomadic Invaders: ○ Invaded India and Persia, significantly weakening the Gupta Empire. ○ Their incursions in the early 6th century led to the empire’s fragmentation into smaller kingdoms. Discussion Questions Comparison of Dynasties: Identify one significant way the Gupta Dynasty differed from the Mauryan Dynasty in governance. Religious Developments: Discuss the possible causes for the explosion of alternative religions within India during the 6th century B.C.E. Manu Law Caste System: ○ Manu, regarded as the “Father of Mankind,” authored the Manu-smriti, foundational for the four castes: Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. ○ Reference video: Manu Law Overview. Social Stratification Caste System: ○ Essential for maintaining order and stability, particularly in urban areas. ○ Promoted a patriarchal society; child marriage was a common practice. Monsoon Navigation Sailing Knowledge: ○ Sailors understood monsoon wind patterns crucial for trade. ○ From April to September, southwest winds brought ships to India; from November to February, northeast winds allowed return voyages. ○ Reference video: Monsoon Trading. Religions of Salvation in Classical India  Social changes generated resentment of caste privilege (e.g., Brahmins were exempt from taxation). Sixth-fifth century B.C.E.: New religions and philosophies challenged the status quo. ○ Charvakas: Atheistic, materialistic philosophy, believed in “From dust to dust.” ○ Emergence of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Charvaka: Philosophy of Materialism Ancient Indian philosophy that valued direct observation and experience. Rejected: ○ The existence of the soul, gods, and an afterlife. ○ The authority of the Vedas (sacred texts) and rituals. Advocated: ○ Materialism and reason over spiritual or supernatural beliefs. ○ Pursuit of pleasure and happiness as life’s main goals. Jainism Modern Founder: Vardhamana Mahavira (540-468 B.C.E.). ○ Left his privileged family to live an ascetic life. ○ Built upon seventh-century movements inspired by the Upanishads. ○ Emphasized selflessness and care for all beings. ○ Followers referred to him as “Jina” (conqueror) and called themselves Jains. Ahimsa (Nonviolence) Central principle of extreme nonviolence. Practices included: ○ Sweeping the earth, straining water, and moving slowly to avoid harming insects. ○ Strict vegetarianism. Modern Impact: Inspired contemporary nonviolence movements. Appeal of Jainism Belief that “All animals are equal.” Rejected caste and jati distinctions.  Appealed to the underprivileged, though extreme asceticism limited its mass appeal. Early Buddhism Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 563-483 B.C.E.). ○ Witnessed suffering (age, sickness, death) and sought enlightenment. ○ Abandoned a comfortable life to become a monk. Gautama’s Search for Enlightenment Pursued intense meditation and extreme asceticism. Achieved enlightenment after 49 days under the bo tree. Became Buddha (“the enlightened one”). Teachings and Lifestyle Taught the doctrine of Dharma: ○ Four Noble Truths: Life is suffering. Suffering can end. Removing desire removes suffering. Follow the Eightfold Path to achieve this. ○ The Eightfold Path includes: Right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. ○ Advocated the Middle Way of moderation. Followers led simple lives: ○ Owned only robes and food bowls. ○ Practiced meditation, begging, and formed monastic communities. Appeal of Buddhism Sought to escape the cycle of reincarnation. Reduced dependence on Brahmins for rituals. Rejected caste and jati distinctions.  Philosophy of moderate consumption. Spread teachings using vernacular languages instead of Sanskrit. Changes in Buddhist Thought By the 3rd century B.C.E. - 1st century C.E.: ○ Buddha considered divine. ○ Introduced bodhisattvas (enlightened beings delaying nirvana to help others). ○ Donations to monasteries became a pious activity. Spread of Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism (newer form) spread to: ○ India, China, Japan, Korea, and Central Asia. Hinayana Buddhism (earlier form) spread to: ○ Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma, and Thailand. Emergence of Popular Hinduism Development of epics from oral traditions: ○ Mahabharata and Ramayana focused on themes like dharma and morality. ○ Bhagavad Gita: Central Hindu text featuring a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna on duty and the immortality of the soul. Key Ideas from Epics Mahabharata: Explores moral struggles, karma, and dharma through a family feud. Ramayana: Highlights loyalty, bravery, and the triumph of good over evil. Hindu Beliefs and Practices Kama: Pursuit of love and sensory experiences (balanced with other life goals). Dharma: Fulfilling moral duties and responsibilities to maintain societal harmony. Samsara: The continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Karma: Actions determine future circumstances within samsara. Caste System and Jati Traditional Caste Roles: ○ Brahmins: Priests and scholars. ○ Kshatriyas: Warriors and rulers. ○ Vaishyas: Merchants and farmers. ○ Shudras: Laborers and servants. ○ Untouchables: Performed tasks considered impure. Over time, jati (job-based communities) became more significant than caste hierarchy. ○ Offered greater flexibility and regional identity. Chapter 10 Historical timeline: ○ Minoan Society ○ Mycenaeans ○ Dark Ages (a.k.a. Age of Chaos) ○ Archaic Period (Rise of city-states) ○ Classical Period (a.k.a. Age of Pericles) ○ Hellenistic Period A link to a summary video is provided: YouTube summary of Ancient Greece. Geography Greece has over 6,000 islands; 227 are habitable. The terrain includes many mountains and cliffs, making farming difficult. Cultural impacts of geography: ○ Greeks became skilled sailors and shipbuilders. ○ Limited crops such as olives, grapes, figs, wheat, and barley were grown. ○ Relied heavily on the sea for food. ○ Trade facilitated cultural exchanges. ○ External links provided for visual references to Greek islands and cliffside terrain.  Discussion: The geography shaped Greek culture by promoting trade, exploration, and reliance on the sea for food. Minoans (First Greeks) Civilization on Crete (established ~2200 BCE). Knossos: Major city and trade center. Used the undeciphered Linear A script (still not deciphered by scholars). Possible reasons for decline: ○ Natural disasters (volcanoes) or foreign invasions are speculated, with video resources provided for further understanding. Mycenaeans Based on mainland Greece; culturally linked to Ancient Greeks. Used decipherable Linear B script. Key points: ○ Strong military society (Spartan ancestors). ○ Mycenae: A great walled city, symbolized by the Lion Gate. ○ Involved in the Trojan War (referenced in The Iliad and The Odyssey). ○ Decline caused by political turmoil (1100–800 BCE). Polis (City-States) Rise during the Archaic Period. Introduction of democracy by figures like Solon: ○ Solon allowed the rich to keep land but forgave poor debts, laying the groundwork for democratic governance. Sparta Government: Oligarchy (dual kingship, Council of Elders). Militaristic society reliant on helots (slaves outnumbered citizens 10:1). Military life:  ○ Boys trained from age 7; active military duty from 20–30; reserve duty until 60. ○ Women educated in fitness and managed properties. ○ Spartan society focused on military strength and order. Athens Birthplace of democracy (Cleisthenes: "Father of Athenian Democracy"). Economy based on trade (notable goods: honey, olive oil, pottery). Gender roles: ○ Men: Balanced education; military training at 18. ○ Women: Limited rights; elite women learned to read/write; others focused on domestic skills and could not own property. ○ Women of elite families had more privileges but were still mostly confined to domestic roles. Religion Polytheistic beliefs; gods and goddesses controlled the world. Myths explained natural phenomena and taught moral lessons. Major gods and goddesses lived on Mount Olympus. The Olympics: Athletic competition held every four years to honor the gods. City-states would temporarily cease fighting to participate in the games. Festivals like the Panhellenic Festivals combined athletic events, theatre, and music in religious celebrations. Golden Age of Athens (Age of Pericles) Pericles (495–429 BCE): Prominent Greek statesman during Athens' Golden Age. ○ Emphasized democracy, military excellence, and cultural achievements. ○ Pericles' Funeral Oration: Praised Athens as a model of democracy and military courage. Delian League: ○ Alliance of city-states for defense against Persia. ○ Athens used the funds from the League to rebuild the city, including the Parthenon.  ○ Tensions between Sparta and Athens led to the Peloponnesian War (431 BCE–404 BCE). Cultural Contributions Architecture: Parthenon in Athens, a classical example of Greek temple design. Art: Sculptor Phidias designed the Parthenon’s sculptural decorations. Intellectuals: ○ Pythagoras: Mathematician who formulated the Pythagorean Theorem. ○ Hippocrates: "Father of Medicine," creator of the Hippocratic Oath. ○ Herodotus: "Father of History." ○ Thucydides: "Father of Modern History." Theater: Greek tragedies by Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles. Greek comedy was performed as well. Hellenistic Period Started after Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE; ended with the rise of the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. Alexander the Great: ○ Known for his conquests and the spread of Greek culture. ○ Built cities and spread Greek architecture, renaming many cities "Alexandria." ○ Death at 33 left his empire fragmented, and his generals fought for control. Hellenistic Empires: ○ Divided into Ptolemaic Egypt, Antigonid Greece and Macedonia, and the Seleucid Empire. Lighthouse of Alexandria: One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Library of Alexandria: The largest library of its time, located in Alexandria, Egypt. Philosophy Socrates: "Father of Philosophy," emphasized questioning everything (Socratic Method). Believed "an unexamined life is not worth living." ○ Executed for "corrupting the youth" of Athens.  Plato: Socrates’ student; wrote The Republic and founded the Academy. Aristotle: Plato’s student and teacher to Alexander the Great. Focused on logical processes and organizing facts, laying the foundation for modern scientific methods. Key Figures King Philip II: United Greece under his rule in 338 BCE. ○ Developed the phalanx formation. ○ Assassinated, succeeded by his son, Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great: ○ Conquered much of the known world, including the Persian Empire. ○ Notable battles: Battle of Issus (333 BCE) and Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE). ○ Conquered territories spread Greek culture. ○ Died at 33, leaving his empire to fragment. Stoicism A philosophical school founded by Zeno of Cyprus during the Hellenistic era. Emphasized living a virtuous life and accepting fate. Chapter 11 Mythology and the Birth of Rome Aeneas: A warrior prince from Troy who fled after the Trojan War, leading surviving Trojans to resettle near the Tiber River. Romulus and Remus: ○ Twin brothers raised by a she-wolf, later found by a shepherd. ○ They argued over where to build their city, leading Romulus to kill Remus and found Rome. Geography: Tiber River Located near "Seven Hills," providing strategic access to the river.  Rome's location: ○ Far enough inland to deter sea invasions. ○ Close enough for the Tiber River to act as a trade "highway." Etruscans Lived north of Rome in Tuscany. Served as a cultural link between Greeks and Romans: ○ Influences: mythology, gladiatorial games, water systems, agriculture, and architecture. Skilled in metalworking (bronze jewelry). Engaged in Mediterranean trade. Roman Political Evolution Monarchy: Rule by kings. Republic: Rule by laws. Dictatorship: Temporary, granted during crises for six months. Empire: Rule by emperors with absolute power. Social Structure Patricians: Wealthy elite class. Plebeians: Commoners (craftsmen and peasants) who: ○ Demanded rights and threatened to leave. ○ Established Tribunes to protect them from mistreatment. ○ Tribunes had veto power over unfair laws. Consuls: ○ Two officials elected yearly; led armies and governed. ○ Could only serve again after 10 years. Senate: ○ 300–500 members, originally magistrates. ○ Initially advisory but gained power over finances. Democracy vs. Republic  Democracy: Power resides with the people (majority rule). Republic: Leaders are elected to represent the people (rule of law). Rome’s Expansion 390 BCE: Rome reorganized its army into smaller, mobile legions (4,000–6,000 soldiers each). Romans considered outsiders "barbarians." Punic Wars (264–146 BCE) Three wars over 40 years between Rome and Carthage: ○ Key conflict: control of Sicilian grain. ○ Hannibal: Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War. Land and Social Reforms Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi: ○ Advocated for land redistribution to address class inequalities. ○ Both were killed for their reforms. Patricians exploited land laws to expand estates (latifundia). Civil unrest followed, with Gaius Marius championing reforms. Julius Caesar’s Rise Born into an elite family but left with nothing due to civil war. Began as a soldier, rising through ranks to restore his family legacy. Allied with Marcus Crassus, Rome’s wealthiest man. Spartacus’ Slave Revolt (73–71 BCE) Spartacus, a gladiator, led a 100,000-strong slave army. Crassus and Julius Caesar ended the revolt: ○ Spartacus killed; 6,000 slaves crucified. Pompey vs. Crassus Rivalry  Both vied for power, nearly leading to civil war. 1st Triumvirate: ○ Julius brokered peace between Pompey and Crassus. ○ Caesar became consul and used intimidation to pass laws. Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul Attacked Gaul without Senate approval, achieving major victories. Built 11-mile-long walls during the Battle of Alesia to win against 250,000 Gauls. Caesar’s Dictatorship and Death Crossed the Rubicon River, defying the Senate. Declared dictator for life but was assassinated on March 15, 44 BCE, by senators led by Brutus. His death ended the Republic and began the Roman Empire. Octavian (Augustus) Julius Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted heir. Formed the 2nd Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. Defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Became the first Roman emperor, ushering in the Pax Romana (27 BCE–14 CE). Roman Emperors Tiberius Caesar (14–37 CE): Unpopular ruler known for treason trials. Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE): ○ Stoic philosopher and author of Meditations. ○ His death ended the Pax Romana. Barracks Emperors (235–284 CE): ○ Period of instability with 26 emperors in 50 years. Roman Achievements Concrete: Revolutionized construction.  Architectural marvels: ○ Pantheon: Pagan temple turned Christian church. ○ Circus Maximus: Chariot race stadium. ○ Colosseum: Gladiator fights, naval battles, and executions. Aqueducts: Provided fresh water, enabling urban growth. Road System: 50,000 miles of paved roads for military and trade. Family and Society Patriarchal system (paterfamilias). Women couldn’t inherit property; marriages were arranged. Slaves outnumbered citizens. Religion Mithraism: Popular with Roman soldiers; excluded women. Judaism: ○ Initially protected by Julius Caesar and Augustus. ○ Later persecuted under certain emperors. Christianity: ○ Originated with Jesus of Nazareth. ○ Spread by apostles, especially Paul of Tarsus. ○ Faced early persecution but later grew influential. Chapter 12 Trade in the Hellenistic World India: Exported spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, and pearls. Persia & Egypt: Exported grain. Mediterranean: Exported wine, oil, jewelry, and art. Development of a professional merchant class. The Silk Roads  Named after silk, the principal commodity from China. Depended on imperial stability for trade security. Included: ○ Overland trade routes connecting China to the Roman Empire. ○ Sea lanes for maritime trade. Organization of Long-Distance Trade Trade was divided into small segments: ○ Conducted in stages. ○ Used older overland and sea routes from Persian, Roman, Egyptian, and Greek Empires. Dangers of Traveling on the Silk Road Common risks: ○ Dehydration and illness with no nearby aid. ○ Taklamakan Desert: Known as "those who enter do not come back out," it was the most dangerous stretch. ○ Bandit attacks. Sea Trade Conducted by Malay and Indian mariners. Relied on monsoon winds for navigation: ○ Summer Monsoon (April to September): Warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean brings torrential rainfall to South and Southeast Asia. ○ Winter Monsoon (October to April): Dry winds from Mongolia and northwestern China blow across the Indian Ocean. Cultural Trade: Buddhism and Hinduism Merchants carried religious ideas along the Silk Roads. Spread from India through Central Asia to East Asia. Development of monasteries in cosmopolitan centers to shelter merchants.  Buddhism became the dominant faith of the Silk Roads (200 BCE–1000 CE). Spread of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity (200 BCE–400 CE) Buddhism & Hinduism in Southeast Asia: ○ Spread mostly via sea trade routes. ○ Indian influence: Rulers referred to as rajas. Use of Sanskrit for written communication. Both religions became increasingly popular. Christianity in Southwest Asia: ○ Adopted ascetic practices influenced by India. ○ Included desert-dwelling hermits and monastic societies. ○ After the 5th century CE, Nestorian Christianity emphasized the human nature of Jesus. The Spread of Epidemic Diseases Trade routes facilitated the spread of pathogens: ○ Smallpox, measles, and the bubonic plague. ○ Resulted in: Economic slowdowns. Regional self-sufficiency. Epidemics in Han and Roman Empires Demographic impact: ○ Han Empire: Epidemics worsened existing internal strife and rebellions. ○ Roman Empire: Epidemics contributed to economic decline. Internal Decay of the Han State Internal conflicts within the royal court. Land distribution issues:  ○ Large landholders developed private armies. Yellow Turban Uprising (184 CE): ○ Peasant rebellion symbolized by the yellow turbans (earth/soil color). ○ Lasted 5 years. Epidemics exacerbated the empire’s problems. Collapse of the Han Dynasty Generals assumed authority and reduced the emperor to a puppet figure. Alliance formed between generals and large landowners. By 200 CE, the Han dynasty was abolished, replaced by three kingdoms. Northern nomads (e.g., Mongols) immigrated into Chinese territories. Fall of the Roman Empire Internal Factors: ○ Instability from "barracks emperors." ○ Epidemics. ○ Economic decline. External Factors: ○ Invasions by barbarians and nomadic tribes. ○ Border security issues. Key Figures in the Roman Decline Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE): ○ Rose from peasantry to prominence as a soldier. ○ Divided the empire into two parts and established the tetrarchy (4 co-rulers). Constantine (r. 306–337 CE): ○ Founded Constantinople as the new Roman capital. ○ Edict of Milan: Legalized Christianity within the Roman Empire. ○ First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. Alaric I (370–410 CE):  ○ Visigoth leader, sacked Rome in 410 CE (first time in 800 years the city was captured by an enemy). Attila the Hun (406–453 CE): ○ From the Eurasian steppes. ○ Led widespread destruction in Roman territories, weakening the empire. ○ Forced the Romans to pay large tributes to avoid further attacks. Odoacer (433–493 CE): ○ Deposed Romulus Augustulus (last Roman emperor in the West) in 476 CE. ○ Became the first barbarian ruler of Italy. End of the Roman Empire By 476 CE: ○ Western Roman Empire officially dissolved. ○ Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. Council of Nicaea (325 CE) Convened by Constantine to resolve disputes between eastern and western church leaders. Key decisions: ○ Affirmed Jesus’s human and divine natures. ○ Determined which texts would be included in the Bible. ○ Early discussions of the Holy Trinity. Spread of Christianity Gregory the Wonderworker (213–270 CE): ○ Inspired by Paul of Tarsus, worked to spread Christianity in Anatolia. ○ Known for performing miracles. Theodosius I (r. 379–395 CE): ○ Declared Christianity the official Roman religion. ○ Banned pagan practices (via the "Theodosian decrees"). St. Cyprian:  ○ Chronicled the suffering of Christians during epidemics in On Mortality. Manichaeism Founded by Mani, a Persian prophet. Combined elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism. Gained popularity in cosmopolitan cities with diverse cultures. Chapter 13 Sui Dynasty (589–618 C.E.) Origin: ○ Formed after the fall of the Han Dynasty. ○ Emerged as one of the regional kingdoms before unifying China. ○ Founded by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen) in 589 C.E. ○ Yang Jian assassinated in 604 C.E. The Grand Canal: ○ Longest man-made waterway. ○ Built under Emperor Yangdi (r. 604–618 C.E.). ○ Connected the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. ○ Expanded pre-existing canals and waterways. ○ Total network: 1,240 miles. ○ Built using forced labor (3.5–5 million workers, over 2 million deaths). Fall of the Sui Dynasty: ○ Peasant discontent due to forced labor for large projects like the Grand Canal. ○ Emperor Yangdi assassinated by his general in 618 C.E., leading to the dynasty’s collapse. Tang Dynasty (618–907 C.E.) Took over after the fall of the Sui Dynasty in 618 C.E. Regarded as the "Golden Age of Art and Culture" in China.  Major Achievements: ○ Established an efficient postal and courier system (roads, horses, stable stations). ○ Implemented the Equal-Field System for wealth redistribution: 20% of land to male family members. 80% of land redistributed to address social inequality. System effective until the 8th century due to population growth, corruption, and power of Buddhist monasteries. Bureaucracy of Merit: ○ Civil service exams based on Confucian teachings, open to all. ○ Merit-based promotions instead of hereditary ties. ○ Created a stronger and more competent government. Military Expansion and Foreign Relations: ○ Expanded into Manchuria, Korea, Vietnam, and Tibet. ○ Established tributary relationships with conquered regions, demanding gifts and introducing the kowtow ritual. ○ Openness to foreign cultures via the Silk Road: Adopted new religions, arts, and fashions. Empress Wu Zetian (Wu Zhao): ○ First and only female emperor of China (690 C.E.). ○ Born into a wealthy family, educated in literature, music, and politics. ○ Promoted Buddhism and expanded the civil service exam system. ○ Associated herself with Buddhist spiritual power (e.g., statue at Longmen Grottoes). Decline: ○ Corruption and negligence by top officials. ○ Rebellion led by An Lushan weakened the dynasty. ○ Relied on Turkish Uighurs for military support, who later sacked major cities. Song Dynasty (960–1279 C.E.) Founded by Song Taizu after 50 years of chaos following the Tang Dynasty's fall. Focused on central government, industry, education, and arts. Military led by scholar-bureaucrats, which contributed to its downfall.  Fell to the Mongols (Kublai Khan) in 1279. Technological Innovations (Tang and Song Dynasties) Metallurgy: ○ Iron for plows and tools, copper for coins. Porcelain: ○ Elite pottery (vases, bowls) symbolizing social status. Printing: ○ Movable wooden block printing press. Navigation: ○ Magnetic compass. Gunpowder: ○ Initially for fireworks; evolved into weapons (rockets, grenades, early guns). Paper money: ○ Introduced during a copper shortage to simplify trade. ○ Controlled by the government to prevent counterfeiting. Agricultural Economies (Tang and Song Dynasties) Introduced fast-ripening rice from Vietnam (two crops per year). Innovations: ○ Iron plows, draft animals, soil fertilizers, improved irrigation. ○ Terrace farming and water wheels. Emergence of a Market Economy Introduced letters of credit and promissory notes. Silk and other Chinese goods highly demanded worldwide. Government-controlled paper money to prevent private counterfeiting (punishable by death). Buddhism in China Flourished after the fall of the Han Dynasty during the Period of Chaos.  Adaptations: ○ Dharma translated as "dao." ○ Nirvana translated as "wuwei." Prominent Figures: ○ Xuanzang traveled to India to collect Buddhist texts. Mahayana Buddhism became popular in western China. Cultural Practices Foot Binding: ○ Practiced among young girls for small feet, considered a sign of beauty. ○ Symbol of patriarchy; unbound feet were deemed "barbaric." Zen Buddhism: ○ Emphasized meditation, mindfulness, and rituals like tea ceremonies. ○ Popular among elites and samurai. Pure Land Buddhism: ○ Accessible to peasants, requiring only repetitive chanting. Japan’s Adaptation of Chinese Influence Nara Period (710–794 C.E.): ○ Introduction of Buddhism from Korea and China. ○ Blended Buddhism with Shintoism (traditional religion focusing on nature spirits). Heian Period (794–1185 C.E.): ○ Capital moved to Kyoto, ushering in a golden age of culture. ○ Aristocracy dominated court life; local clans gained power. ○ The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki: Considered the world’s first novel, depicting courtly life and impermanence.