History 2 (18, 23-53) PDF

18. What is meant by „balancing Austria-Hungary»? The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Compromise partially re-established the former pre-1848 sovereignty and status of the Kingdom of Hungary, however being separate from, but no longer subjec...

18. What is meant by „balancing Austria-Hungary»? The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Compromise partially re-established the former pre-1848 sovereignty and status of the Kingdom of Hungary, however being separate from, but no longer subject to the Austrian Empire. The compromise put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary, which was introduced by Francis Joseph after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Hungary was restored. The agreement also restored the old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary. After the revolution of 1848, Austrian Empire was transformed into a unitary state with absolute and unlimited central authority. Hungary did not like this, since it wanted independence. For the period 1859-1861. came the peak of anti-Austrian uprisings in Hungary. Massive anti-government demonstrations began, especially strong in Hungary (demonstration on March 15, 1860 in Pest). All this forced the emperor to make compromises to the national movements of the country. Several treaties were issued that restored the autonomy of the regions and expanded the rights of the Hungarian State Assembly (local government), which even received the right to initiate legislation. Hungarian was declared an o cial language on the territory of Hungary. The Hungarians were not enough and they demanded the restoration of the entire constitution of 1849. A petition was also made to the emperor asking for the restoration of the 1849 constitution. Attempts by the government to resolve the situation through limited reforms failed: the October diploma and the February patent were rejected by the Hungarian national movement. The main demand remained the restoration of the constitution of 1848, which required the full sovereignty of the Hungarian kingdom while maintaining union with Austria. In 1863, constitutional reforms were canceled, and the government again returned to autocratic methods of government. ffi  Despite the failure of attempts at constitutional reforms in 1860-1861, Emperor Franz Joseph I did not give up hope of working out some kind of compromise with the Hungarian national movement, which would strengthen the monarchy. The Austro-Hungarian agreement was accelerated by international events in the mid-1860s. The sharp weakening as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 as well as the growth of pan-Slavic sympathies within the national movements of the Slavic peoples of the empire (primarily the Czechs), worried the Hungarian leaders. At the same time, the national movements of other nations of the Austrian Empire intensi ed: Czechs, Croats, Romanians, Poles and Slovaks, who came up with the ideas of transforming the state into a federation of equal peoples. And so Hungary decreased its demands a little bit. At the same time, the Austrian liberals also came to realise the need to conclude an alliance with the Hungarians to ensure the preservation of German dominance in the western half of the empire. By the end of 1866, Franz Joseph was convinced of the advantages of the Austro-Hungarian dualism, which gave hope for a possible Austrian revenge in Germany. And on March 15, 1867, the terms of the compromise were agreed and on March 20, approved by the Hungarian State Assembly. On June 8, Franz Joseph I was crowned King of Hungary in Budapest. CREATION OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY The Austro-Hungarian agreement and the laws that formalized it turned the uni ed (unitary) absolute monarchy of the Habsburgs into a dualistic constitutional state - both in territorial-administrative and legal relations. The empire was divided into two parts - Austrian and Hungarian, each of which received full sovereignty over internal a airs. Both parts were supposed to have their own parliament, an elected and independent government, their own system of state administration, court and justice. 31. Which political con ict and tensions were at the First Republic in the 1930s? fi fi fl ff During this period, the life of the First Austrian Republic turned into a confrontation between two political forces - the Social Democrats, supported by the urban working class, and the «right party», supported by the Catholic Church. In addition to parliamentary parties, both left and right forces had military organizations of thousands of WWI front-line soldiers. Clashes between the two sides were common since 1921; though until 1927 there were no deaths. From 1920 to 1933, all chancellors were members of the Christian Social Party, as well as presidents from 1928 to 1933. Despite the long- term period of one party in power, this did not add stability to Austrian politics. The country was constantly experienced clashes between the left (Republikanischer Schutzbund) and right (Heimwehr) political groups. In 1927, was a riot between left and right groups during which were murdered a man and a child. It is known as the July Uprising of 1927 (during which also was burnt Palace of Justice in Vienna) As a result, the uprising was suppressed only with the help of harsh police actions, as a result of which a large number of protesters died. However, despite all government measures, the increase in violence in the country did not stop until the early 1930s, when Engelbert Dollfuss became Chancellor. 32. Describe the political background that led to that 1933/34 takeover of the Austrofascists! Austrofascism - is an authoritarian political regime established in Austria in 1933-1934 by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss and existed until the 1938 Anschluss. The Dolphus-Schuschnigg regime largely used the practice of state structure in Italy under Mussolini, hence the name Austrofascism. Introduced by Social Democratic leader Otto Bauer. From 1920 to 1933, all Austrian chancellors were members of the Christian Socialist Party, and so were the presidents from 1928-1933. In general, the end of the 1920s was quite successful for the Austrian economy, which made it possible to raise wages and build municipal housing for workers and civil servants. But the Great Depression, which began at the end of 1929, led to mass unemployment and put an end to social programs, which again exacerbated the struggle between the right and the left. Right-wing ideologists (the Cristian Party) spread the opinion in society that "Western democracy" and a parliamentary form of state are unacceptable for Austria; in May 1930, the militant organization of the right, Heimver, created the so- called "Korneuburg Oath" to ght for the complete elimination of parliamentary democracy and its replacement by "the power of the patriots" in broad alliance with the public and the church. At the same time, the Social Democrats won the 1932 local elections in Vienna. Accordingly, the defeated right-wing forces (the Cristian Party) feared defeat in the nationwide parliamentary elections, and decided to use forces to take the power and the cancel democratic elections at all. This course was actively supported by Benito Mussolini. The leaders of the Christian Socialist Party came under attack from two ideological enemies, Marxists and Nazis, who apparently threatened the very foundation of the conservative system. In response, Dolphuss decided to replace the parliamentary government with an authoritarian system. The change of 1933 In February 1933, the Cristians' Party provoked a parliamentary crisis in connection with the adoption of the law on the minimum wage. After parliamentary hearings were deadlocked and three speakers resigned, Chancellor Engelbert Dolphuss dissolved parliament! Then followed a series of actions that established the corporate dictatorship of a group of conservatives equally distant from both the Austrian left and the German nationalists: fi  April 10 - the republican law on the separation of the school from the church was canceled; May 10 - All elections, from municipal to federal, were canceled; May 20 - the Fatherland Front, a broad coalition of right-wing forces and churches, a pillar of the Dolphuss regime, an ultra-right Austrofascist (but not Nazi) political party was founded; May 26 - the activities of the Communist Party are banned; July 19 - the activities of the NAZI party or NSGWP are prohibited; August 16 - the state and the church entered into an agreement (canceled by the German side after the Anschluss); September - urgent construction of concentration camps; Due to the fact that the Austrian left (Social-democrats) was a threat to the government, the Dollfus regime immediately arrested many left-wing activists. After the banning of all other political parties and the liquidation of parliament and democracy, the Fatherland Front, (what was formerly (the Peasant Party)) occupied a monopoly position in Austrian politics. The activities of the communists were rmly driven underground, but the social democrats were still in uential! 33) Describe the events around the civil war in Austria in February 1934. The February 1934 uprising in Austria, also known as the Austrian Civil War, was an armed clash in the Republic of Austria on February 12-16, 1934 between left-wing (social democratic) and right-wing groups, with police and army forces also taking part. On both sides, up to 1,600 people died. The Social Democrats were subject to increasing provocations and on February 12, 1934, a search at the headquarters of the Social Democrats in Linz provoked an armed clash between government forces and militants of banned left organizations. The con ict shaped to the large cities of Austria, primarily Vienna, where left militants barricaded themselves in workers' districts. fl fl fi  February 12, 1934 entered the battle. Civil war followed. After four days of ghting (up to the 16th of February), Dollfuss and Heimver won. The Social Democratic Party was declared illegal and driven underground. In the same year, all political parties were liquidated, except for the Fatherland Front, which Dolphuss founded in 1933 to unite all conservative groups. By removing the Social Democrats from the political arena, the Dolphuss government united an alliance of conservative forces and the church. From April 30 to May 1, 1934, the last in the history of the rst republic was held a meeting of legislators fully controlled by the Dolphuss regime, at which the so-called May Constitution, borrowed from the Mussolini regime, was adopted. The constitution, approved on May 1, 1934, replaced the state slogan of the rst republic «Austria is a democratic republic. The right belongs to the people» to "In the name of Almighty God, who grants all rights, the Austrian people received this constitution for their Christian German union state, built on the principle of estates. " In July 1934, Dolphuss was killed by the Austrian SS (Nazi), but the regime he created, known as Austrofascism, lasted until the Anschluss of 1938. 34. Describe the system of Austrofaschism! In the economy, the Austro-fascists pursued a course of "all-estate friendly relationships" and the rejection of the class struggle. Independent trade unions were replaced by associations of workers and employers, and in 1935 workshops were recreated according to the Middle Ages model. O cially recognized unemployment in 1933 peaked at 26% (557,000 people), and during the reign of the Austro-fascists fell by about 50%. The share of social expenditures of the state has decreased in about the same way. The government, as best it could, protected the domestic market with customs barriers and introduced restrictions on domestic trade, but did not have long-term economic plans. fi fi ffi fi Free elections of people's representatives were replaced by internal competition within the Fatherland Front and the Austrian Cartel Union, a union of student organizations under the control of the church. In exchange for political support, Dollfuss o ered guaranteed employment and housing assistance to students. Both the party functionaries of the union and its rank-and- le members were widely represented in the government bodies and the boards of enterprises; the members of the union were required to abandon the national socialist, communist ideologies and an oath of allegiance to the nation state. It should be noted that only the most noticaeble opponents of the regime were subjected to repression. So the leaders of the Social Democrats Karl Rennar and Fritz Adler continued to live in Austria. Dollfuss was the most trusty enemy of German in uence, and, in his own words, set the goal of "over-Hitler" in the ght for the minds and sympathies of the Austrians. However, in July 1934, Dollfuss was killed by Austrian SS men in an attempted Nazi coup. 35) How did the National Socialists try to gain political power in Austria? How did this attempt end? Should be mentioned that in Austria, both in society and on the part of the authorities, there was resistance to the spread of Nazi ideas, especially at a time when they began to seriously threaten Austrian sovereignty and independence. For example, when the National Socialists, led by A. Hitler, came to power in Germany in 1933, their "mirror" party was banned in Austria. The Austrian National Socialists operating underground in 1934 tried to stage a putsch in Vienna. On July 25, 1934, a group of Nazis took over the Chancellery and tried to proclaim a government. Dolphus, whom they took prisoner, was killed. However, the plan failed: the Nazis in the chancellery were forced to surrender and their leaders were executed; This event caused a storm of emotions in neighboring Italy, headed by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Mussolini suspected Germany of organizing fi fi ff fl the assassination of Dollfuss and promised military assistance to the Austro-fascist government in the event of an invasion by German troops. Mussolini’s concern was due to the fact that the Nazis in Germany put forward claims to the Italian province of Tyrol, in which the majority were ethnic Germans. Thanks to the support from Italy, the Austrian state avoided the threat of forcible annexation to Germany back in 1934. The next Austrian chancellor was Kurt Schuschnigg (Шушниг). After 1934, the Austrian government came under increasing pressure from Nazi Germany. The situation was worsening by the weakening of support from Benito Mussolini, who now wanted to connect with Adolf Hitler. On July 11, 1936, Schuschnigg was forced to conclude the so-called "July Agreement" with the German government. According to him, the Nazis imprisoned in Austrian prisons were pardoned, and subsequently the National Socialists were included in the government, including Arthur Seyss-Inquart became a member of the State Council. In response, Germany canceled the so-called “Thousand Marks Barrier” - a tax levied upon leaving for Austria, which greatly harmed the Austrian tourism industry. Beginning in 1937, the Nazis were allowed to join the Fatherland Front. As a result, despite the fact that the activities of the Nazi Party in Austria remained banned, in reality the National Socialists received a legal cover for their organization. On February 12, 1938, Schuschnigg and Hitler signed an agreement, according to which the National Socialists were able to freely engage in political activities and more actively participate in government. So, Seyss-Inquart was appointed Minister of the Interior and Security in February. 36) How did relations developed between Austria and the German Empire between 1933 and 1938? Schuschnigg had to negotiate a compromise with Germany, which was signed on July 11, 1936; Germany promised to respect Austria's sovereignty, and Austria responded by recognizing itself as a "German state." The agreement made Austria open to Nazi enter. However, In January 1938, the Austrian police uncovered a new Nazi conspiracy. Schuschnigg hoped to defeat this by meeting Hitler, but in Berchtesgaden, Germany, where Hitler received him on February 12, 1938, Schuschnigg faced the threat of military intervention in support of the Austrian Nazis. He had to agree to grant them a general amnesty and include some of the leading Nazis in his cabinet; The Ministry of the Interior had to assign responsibility to Arthur Seyss- Inquart, a representative of the Austrian Nazis. Open campaigning by the Nazis threatened to undermine the authority of the government, and con dential contacts in European capitals made Schuschnigg realize that he could not count on the support of Western European powers. Therefore, he decided to challenge Hitler alone. On March 9, he announced that a vote would be held on March 13 to decide in favor of Austrian independence. 37. How was the takeover of the NSGWP (NAZI) in the early 30s in Germany? The National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP, NAZI) - was a political party in Germany that existed from 1920 to 1945, from January 1933 it was the ruling party, and from July 1933 to May 1945 it was the only legal party in Nazi Germany. After the war, the situation in the country was very di cult. Then the Weimar Republic began to slowly get out of the post-war devastation, but the global economic crisis that began in 1929, the growth of unemployment and reparations, which they paid according to the Versailles Treaty, put the country in di cult problems. In March 1930, unable to agree with parliament on a single nancial policy, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed a new Reich Chancellor, fi ffi ffi fi who no longer relied on the support of the parliamentary majority and depended only on the president himself. The Reichstag no longer in uenced the appointment of the chancellor and the formation of the government, but could remove them. The government began to change very often. Eventually, the new chancellor, Heinrich Brüning, introduced strict economy. There were more and more dissatis ed people. In the elections to the Reichstag in September 1930, the NSDAP, led by Hitler, managed to increase the number of its seats from 12 to 107, and the Communists from 54 to 77. Thus, right-wing and left-wing extremists together won almost a third of the seats in parliament. Under these conditions, any productive policy was practically impossible. In the next elections in 1932, the National Socialists received 37 percent of the vote and became the strongest faction in the Reichstag, although they did not have an absolute majority. Relying on the support of the elite and on his own successes, in August 1932 Hitler appealed to Hindenburg with a demand to appoint him Reich Chancellor. Hindenburg refused. Later, at the end of 1932, with the help of Hitler, information appeared that a number of East Prussian landowners, including the president's son, were using state subsidies in a purely for personal purposes (buying luxury goods, keeping mistresses, relaxing in expensive resorts, playing in casinos and doing other things like that). At the same time, accusations that Oscar was avoiding taxes, were becoming louder. An investigation by the prosecutor's o ce and a loud scandal began. On January 22, 1933, Oskar von Hindenburg had a meeting with Hitler. After this meeting, Oskar said to the o cial accompanying him: "Now there is no way other than to appoint Hitler as chancellor." fl fi ffi ffi It is assumed that during this conversation Hitler threatened Oskar with further revelations, and if the president meets his demands, he will immediately stop the investigation into the "Hindenburg case.» Thus, 7 days after meeting on January 30, 1933, Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Reich Chancellor. On February 27, at 10 pm, Berlin re ghters received a message that the Reichstag building was on re. Despite the best e orts of the re ghters, the building was engulfed in ames. A former communist was caught in a burning building. Hitler said that the burning of the Reichstag was committed by the communists, and that this was the signal for the start of the communist coup. The burning of the Reichstag was bene cial to the Nazis - they instantly declared the Communist Party outlawed. But even in such favorable conditions in the elections to the Reichstag on March 5, 1933, the NSDAP, according to o cial gures, won 17.3 million votes - about 3 million less than it took to have 50% of the votes in the Reichstag. From the beginning of 1933, the right-wing parties found a common enemy that rallied them - communism. Therefore, many historians talk not about the capture, but about the transfer of power to the NSDAP. However, to assert their power, the National Socialists used illegal means, such as terrorist attacks, during which political opponents were intimidated, arrested and destroyed. Hitler quickly achieved a consolidation of his power. Just a few weeks after his appointment as Reich Chancellor, a state of emergency was e ectively declared in Germany. Having broken through to power, Hitler did not let go of it until the very end. In just a few months, he managed to establish a dictatorship based on terror. Already in February 1933, the new Reich Chancellor abolished freedom of the press and freedom of assembly, in March e ectively deprived parliament of power, abolished the governments of the federal states in April, disbanded free trade unions in May, and banned all parties except the National Socialist in July. fl fi fi fi fi ffi ff fi ff fi fi ff  Boycotts of Jewish-owned shops began, and Jews were forbidden to work as doctors, lawyers, journalists, teachers in schools and teachers in universities. And to complete the picture: in the spring of 1933, the rst concentration camps for political prisoners were set up. On August 2, 1934, the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg died. The Nazi government decides that henceforth the post of president is merged with the post of Reich Chancellor. All the former powers of the president are transferred to the Reich Chancellor - "Fuhrer". The transition to a totalitarian state has been completed. 38. Describe the events surrounding the annexation of Austria into the German Empire in March 1938! Versailles and Saint Germain. treaties banned the Anschluss and even the customs union. With the coming to power of Hitler, the Anschluss became the o cial course of German foreign policy. In Austria, in 1933, the idea of uniting with the Nazi dictatorship began to generate active rejection. Chancellor Dollfuss banned the activities of the National Assembly of the NSDAP in Austria. Austrofascism relied on the support of the clergy and denied the very possibility of German in uence on Austrian politics. On July 25, 1934, Chancellor Dollfuss was assassinated by SS men in his o ce, never agreeing to the demand to resign. On July 11, 1936, new Chancellor Schuschnigg concluded an agreement with the Third Reich, according to which Austria actually promised to follow German policy, in return Germany recognized the sovereignty and independence of Austria. Political prisoners were amnestied and the Nazis were appointed to public o ce. ffi ffi fl ​​ fi ffi An even more favorable situation developed for Germany, when in 1937 the Western powers began to view the capture of Austria not as an aggression, but as a revision of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. On February 12, 1938, Chancellor Schuschnigg was presented with an ultimatum at the Hitler’s residence, which actually turned the country into dependence on Germany. On March 13, Schuschnigg is ahead of the curve and on Sunday announces a vote on Austrian independence. Hitler responded with a mobilization order for the invasion of Austria. At Berlin's instructions, the nationalists took over the Chancellor's administration, forced him to refuse to vote and give up. The Chancellor announced his resignation by radio and ordered the Austrian army to retreat and not engage in hostilities. On the night of March 11-12, 1938, German troops entered the territory of Austria. The Austrian army was ordered not to resist and surrendered. On March 12, 1937, Hitler entered Austria following his hometown of Braunau and the city of his youth, Linz. The rst performances before the people took place from the balcony of the Old Town Hall in Linz. On March 13, Hitler entered Vienna. On the same day, the law “On the reuni cation of Austria into the German Empire” was published, according to which Austria was declared “one of the lands of the German Empire”. On April 20, a false vote was held on the issue of joining - 99.75% «for yes». 39. Describe the system of National Socialists’ rule in Austria in 1938-1945. Austria was completely absorbed by Germany. All o cial memory of Austrian existence was destroyed and suppressed. Austria was renamed Ostmark. Right after invasion, the Nazis arrested many leaders of the anti-Nazi Austrian political parties and a large number of political opponents, fi fi ffi especially communists and socialists. Many Austrians, especially Jews of origin, were forced to leave the country. After the Anschluss, German racial laws were carried out. According to the laws, 220 thousand people were considered Jews in Austria. The emigration of Jews began. Before the start of the war, according to various estimates, from 109,060 to 126,445 Jews left, including such celebrities as Sigmund Freud. Between 58,000 and 66,260 Jews remained in the country. Emigration from the Reich was banned in October 1941. As a result of the Holocaust, according to various estimates, from 60 to 65 thousand Austrian Jews died, that is, almost everyone who did not leave before the war. The agreement with the Vatican was canceled by the German side. The Catholic Church was oppressed by the Nazi authorities. During this time, many Catholic monasteries and educational institutions of the Catholic Church were closed. Many believers of the Catholic Church at this time actively resisted the Nazis. Also, The Nazis gave a powerful impulse to the modernization of the Austrian economy and society. Most of Germany's military infrastructure was located in Austria. Linz, Hitler's hometown, was a place to some of the largest investments, including a modern steel factory. Hermann Goering and a large chemical plant for the production of nitrogen. Wiener Neustadt became home to the largest aircraft factory in the Third Reich. A few months after the Anschluss the unemployment problem in Austria has almost disappeared, and the Austrian the economy was transformed to a more modern basis. Economic changes have brought about major social changes. Labor went to the cities and industrial centers.  40. How did the Austrian population react to the takeover by the National Socialist in 1938? To what extent the Austrian population participated in the National Socialist system of rule? 1ST PART Although the vast majority of Austrians were not Nazis, popular support for Germany's wartime policies remained strong until the later stages of the war. 2ND PART Austrians largely participated in the Holocaust. The Austrians then - and the Austrians now - bear responsibility for the worst genocide in human history, probably even more that Germans. A central and painful problem in Austrian history during Hitler's time is that for most of the period the Austrians and the Austrian economy bene ted enormously from Nazi rule, and most Austrians supported, actively or passively, the regime, especially Fuhrer. The Austrians, generally speaking, did not behave like an occupied nation, and they were not treated as such. 41. To what extent was resistance against the system of National Socialism in Austria? The Austrian historian Helmut Konrad has estimated that out of an Austrian population of 6.8 million in 1938, there were around 100,000 Austrian opponents to the regime who were convicted and imprisoned, and an Austrian membership of the Nazi Party of 700,000. Austrian resistance was small, although it was quite signi cant. Left-wing resistance groups (mostly communists, with fewer socialists) dominated, but conservative resistance groups (mainly Christian socialists and monarchists) were active as well. During the war, tens of thousands of Austrians were arrested for political reasons; many of them died in concentration camps or prisons, and about 2,700 were executed. The most impressive individual group of the Austrian resistance was the one around the priest Heinrich Maier. This very successful Catholic resistance group wanted to revive a Habsburg monarchy after the war and very fi fi successfully transferred plans and production facilities for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the Allies during the WWII. With the location sketches of the production facilities, the Allied bombers were able to carry out precise air attacks and thus protect residential areas. 42) What were the most important political events in the National Socialists system of the German Empire before the Second World War (January 1933)? Within two weeks of the passing of the Enabling Act, Nazi governors were sent out to bring the federal states into line, and a few months later the states themselves were ended. On April 7, 1933, Nazis began to clean the civil service, along with the universities, of the communists, socialists, democrats, and Jews. On May 2 the trade unions were broken up and replaced by what the Nazis called a Labour Front. In the meantime the started to remodel the police into a secret political police, the Gestapo. After the death of the president Hitler proclaimed himself ruler (фюрер). A core element of the Nazi Party ideology was anti-Semitism, and Hitler used this period of consolidation to mobilize the power of the Nazi police state against Germany’s Jewish citizens and they started di erent campaigns for growth of German nation. Jews were deprived of virtually all legal rights under the Nürnberg Laws of September 15, 1935 (These measures were among the rst of the racist Nazi laws that culminated in the Holocaust.), and prewar state-sponsored persecution of Jews reached its peak on Kristallnacht (November 9–10, 1938). Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels ordered these pogroms, in which SS-directed rioters damaged or destroyed more than 1,000 synagogues and stoled some 7,500 Jewish-owned homes and businesses. Huge numbers of Jews were killed in the violence, and tens of thousands of Jewish men and boys were arrested and imprisoned in concentration camps. fi ff  After Kristallnacht, the large amount of all Jewish property was con scated, and Germany’s Jews were e ectively erased from public life. By 1939 the military preparations, including the militarization of German life and education and the establishment of a war economy, had made such progress in Hitler’s opinion that he could challenge the European order even at the risk of a second great war. On August 23, 1939, Hitler, without consulting his Italian and Japanese allies, concluded a pact of friendship and nonaggression with the Soviet Union. The agreement contained a secret treaty between Germany and Russia dividing Poland and the whole of eastern Europe into areas of in uence. It was the immediate introduction to World War II, which began in Poland on September l. 43) What steps put the anti-Semetic National Socialists against the Jews before it was initiated by the so-called ,„Final Solution of the Jewish question" from 1942, the systematic extermination in concentration and extermination camps? The Final Solution to the Jewish Question - was a Nazi plan for the genocide of Jews during World War II. It was the o cial code name for the murder of all Jews within reach, which was not restricted to the European continent. This policy of intentional and systematic genocide starting across German- occupied Europe was formulated by Nazi leadership in January 1942 at the Wannsee Conference held near Berlin, and culminated in the Holocaust, which saw the killing of 90% of Polish Jews, and two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe. For the rst time the term " nal decision" in relation to the Jews, the future Fuehrer of Germany Adolf Hitler applied in 1919 in a letter to the command of the German army, where he writes that Jews, whom he considers "racially inferior", should be limited in their rights, and calls for the development of special law on foreigners. "The ultimate goal of this law is the ultimate solution to the Jewish question.» In 1939, the German government conducted a population count. During the count (census), information was collected on the age, gender, place of residence, profession, religion and marital status of each person and - for the rst time - on the race, which was determined by grandparents up to the second generation. fi fl fi fi ff ffi fi  Using data from the 1939 census, Nazis created a "Jewish Register" containing detailed information on the entire Jewish population of Germany. The "register" also included the names of Jews from Austria and the Sudetenland region of Western Czechoslovakia, which was occupied by German forces in 1938-1939. and became part of the Reich (German Empire). The racial ideology and politics of the Nazis were not limited to the borders of Germany. For this, after the Anschluss of Austria in Vienna, a "Central O ce for Jewish Emigration" was created. Mass emigration of Jews began. Jewish emigration activities were controlled by the SS and the Gestapo, though they were allowed!!!!!! Then, at some point the situation changed. Nazis became more aggressive.There is no agreed version why this happened, however historians know for sure that Hitler has some anti-semitic views way before the executions started and wanted to «clean» the Europe of the Jews. Did he plan it beforehand or the anger just increased. A speci c document con rming the exact date of the decision on the mass extermination of Jews has not been preserved. Nevertheless, some historians are sure that such a document existed and was adopted in the spring or early summer of 1941. In particular, Professor Dan Michman believes that it could have been Hitler's secret oral decree. After the German attack on the USSR on June 22, 1941, SS units, police began to kill Soviet Jews by mass executions. Local collaborators provided substantial assistance in this in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Russia and Ukraine. In the fall of 1941, gas vans began to be used for destruction - cars, the body of which was designed to poison passengers with carbon monoxide. In the fall of 1941, the kills of Jews were on the territory of the General Government (part of Poland). As part of this plan, the construction of three concentration camps intended for the extermination of prisoners began. 44) Which other groups besides the Jews were among the victims of the system of National Socialism? Hitler, who was Chancellor of Germany during the Holocaust, came to power in 1933 when Germany was experiencing severe economic hardship. fi fi ffi Hitler promised the Germans that he would bring them prosperity and that his military actions would restore Germany to a position of power in Europe. Hitler had a vision of a Master Race of Aryans that would control Europe. He used very powerful propaganda techniques to convince not only the German people, but others, that if they eliminated the people who stood in their way and the degenerates and racially inferior, they – the great Germans would prosper. Although Jews were the primary victims of the Nazi’s evil, many other groups were targeted based on both racial and political grounds. Other groups singled out by the Nazis included LGBTQ individuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Roma (gypsies), Poles and other Slavic peoples, and members of political opposition groups. The Nazis decided that it was a waste of time and money to support the disabled. During Hitler’s “cleansing program,“ thousands of people with various disables were considered useless and put to death like dogs and cats. Also were carried out sterilisation for Black children. The Anti-Romanyism view of Nazi Germany was implemented initially most harshly in newly annexed Austria when between 1938 and 1939 the Nazis arrested around 2,000 Gypsy men who were sent to Dachau and 1,000 Gypsy women who were sent to Ravensbrück. In late October 1939, all Austrian Gypsies were required to register themselves. Between 1938-39 the Nazis carried out racial examinations against the Gypsy population. Nazi racial research concluded that 90% of Gypsies were of mixed ancestry. Thus, after 1942, the Nazis discriminated against the Gypsies on the same level as the Jews with a variety of discrimination laws. 45) Describe the re-establishment of the Republic of Austria in 1945! How did the victors of the Second World War adhere to the Republic of Austria? AND 46) To what extent Austria's sovereignty was limited in the years between 1945 and 1955? The 1943 Moscow Declaration of the allied countries in the anti-Hitler coalition recognized the annexation of Austria to the German Reich as invalid.  Since the fall of the Nazi regime, by the decision of the allies, Austria was restored as a state within the pre-war borders, but was divided into four zones of occupation: American, British, Soviet and French. The Soviet zone included the northeast of the country, where many factories and oil elds were located. The American zone was located in the north and west; British in the south, French in the southwest. Vienna, which was located inside the Soviet zone, was also divided into four occupation sectors, with the old center (inner city) under the joint control of all four Allied powers. On April 27, 1945, the Provisional Government was created, which included representatives of the Socialist Party (formerly Social Democratic), the People's Party (formerly Christian Social) and the Communists, the veteran of Social Democracy Karl Renner, who had already held this post, became Chancellor and later on during the next elections he became a President At the same time was proclaimed the reestablishment of Austria as a democratic republic. However, the powers of the Austrian government expanded gradually. All laws adopted by the Austrian Parliament before their o cial publication had to receive permission from the Allied Commission. For the whole time util the 15th of May 1955 the Allied Commission was deciding what to do. All laws adopted by the Austrian Parliament before their o cial publication, the Austrian federal government received permission from the Allied Commission. In the absence of permission from this authority, Austrian law could not enter into force. At the beginning of the Allied Council's activities, each of the occupying powers could veto an objectionable law. Later it was decided that the veto of the law is imposed only by all four parties jointly. On May 15, 1955, in Vienna at the Belvedere Palace, the Austrian State Treaty (Declaration of Independence of Austria) was signed between the allied occupying forces (USSR, USA, Great Britain, France) and the Austrian government. It entered into force on July 27, 1955, after which the Allied troops were withdrawn from the country on October 25, 1955. fi ffi ffi On October 26, 1955, the government approved a federal constitutional law declaring Austria's permanent neutrality and excluding the possibility of joining any military alliances or establishing foreign military bases in Austria. Since 1965, October 26 has been celebrated in Austria as a national holiday - Republic Day. The State Treaty—signed in Vienna on May 15, 1955, by representatives of the four occupying powers and Austria—formally reestablished the Austrian republic in its pre-1938 frontiers as a “sovereign, independent, and democratic state.” It prohibited Anschluss between Austria and Germany as well as the restoration of the Habsburgs. 47) What is the Marshall Plan and the ERP (European Recovery Program)? The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, was a U.S. program providing aid to Western Europe following the devastation of World War II. It was enacted in 1948 and provided more than $15 billion to help nance rebuilding on the continent. It was crafted as a four-year plan to reconstruct cities, industries and infrastructure heavily damaged during the war and to remove trade barriers between European neighbors—as well as encourage commerce between those countries and the United States. In addition to economic redevelopment, one of the stated goals of the Marshall Plan was to stop the spread communism on the European continent. The Marshall Plan, rst idea in June 1947, was central to Austria’s future prosperity. Over the next few years Austria received from the European Recovery Program roughly $1 billion. Over half of these funds were invested in industrial and infrastructural projects. This was the nancial basis for Austria’s spectacular economic growth. In the same summer of 1947 the Americans also cancelled the payment for occupation costs and reimbursed the Austrian government more than $300 million charged to that point. The program was a complete success and instrumental in the major economic upturn that Europe experienced after World War II. fi fi fi 48) Identify the main points of the State Treaty of Vienna of 1955 (Staatsvertrag)! Its full title is "Treaty for the re-establishment of an independent and democratic Austria, signed in Vienna on 15 May 1955" The treaty re-established a free, sovereign and democratic Austria. The basis for the treaty was the Moscow Declaration of 30 October 1943. The agreement and its annexes provided for Soviet oil eld concessions and property rights of oil re neries in Eastern Austria and the transfer of the assets of the Danube Shipping Company to the USSR. As well as general regulations and recognition of the Austrian state, the minority rights of the Slovene and Croat minorities were also expressly detailed. Anschluss was forbidden. Nazi and fascist organisations were prohibited. Austrian neutrality is actually not in the original text of the treaty but was declared by parliament on 26 October 1955, after the last Allied troops were to leave Austria according to the treaty. When the occupation ended with the signing of the State Treaty in May 1955, the Soviet Union had under its control some 450 rms with 50,000 employees--some 10 percent of the Austrian industrial labor force. Under the terms of the treaty, Austria agreed to make reparation payments to the Soviet Union in oil, other goods, and cash to compensate for the return of these Soviet-controlled assets. The payments, which were completed in 1963, totaled S7.1 billion. 49) How was the economic situation in Austria in the years after the Second World War? Austria emerged from World War II with its economy broken. The loss of lives and the damage to industry and transportation had decreased production to only one-third of its prewar level. Reestablishment of the economy was both slowed down and helped by the division of Austria into four Allied occupation zones after the war and by the ten-year period of foreign occupation. fi fi fi  During the occupation, the primary objective of the Soviet Union was the exploitation of the Austrian economy. Although the Western Allies had successfully prevented the demands of direct reparations from Austria, they agreed to give the Soviet Union access to all German assets in eastern Austria, that is, the part of Austria under Soviet occupation. Fixed production installations were formally con scated and put into production to serve Soviet interests. The Western Allies, in contrast, invested considerable e ort, money, and material under United States leadership in reconstructing the Austrian economy. In the rst place, most United States aid went for economic reconstruction in the Allied occupation zones, rather than in the Soviet areas, to prevent its su ering from Soviet hands. This meant, in turn, the creation of employment opportunities in western Austria that, together with the more relaxed living conditions and political freedoms, stimulated a steady movement of the population to the west from Soviet-occupied eastern Austria. Thus, the industrialization of the Austrian areas, which had started for military purposes during the Nazi occupation, was further advanced. Behaviour of Wester Allies stimulated a strong of government with them. There were two major developments carried over into the postoccupation period and had signi cant in uence on the future course of the economy. The rst was the nationalization of a large segment of Austria's heavy industry. The second was the mechanism for dealing with in ation via wage- prices agreements reached by the representatives of business, agriculture, and labor. About seventy industrial enterprises and plants were selected for nationalization. They established the Economic Commission, negotiated a schedule of xed prices for essential goods and services, and adjusted wages and pensions to that schedule. fi fi fi fi ff fl fi fl ff At the time of the signing of the State Treaty in May 1955, the economy had largely recovered from the e ects World War II, although industrial facilities in the Soviet Zone that had been returned to Austrian control were in poor condition. Finally, Austrian independence arrived at a time of growing European prosperity as the full e ects of the Marshall Plan were being felt. Thus, Austria was able to take its place in the economy of Western Europe and to share in the prosperity that characterized the postwar period. ——— From 1945 to 1952 Austria had to struggle for survival. After liberation from Nazi rule, the country faced complete economic chaos. Aid provided by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and, from 1948, support given by the United States under the Marshall Plan made survival possible. Heavy industry and banking were nationalized in 1946, and, by a series of wage-price agreements, the government tried to control in ation. Interference by military commanders in political and economic a airs in the Soviet zone of occupation caused a considerable migration of capital and industry from that area to the western states. This brought about a considerable positive transformation of the economic and social structure. The nationalized steel industry, electric power plants, and oil elds, together with the privately owned lumber and textile industries and the tourist tra c, were the major economic assets. The Austrian economy came to be dominated to a disproportionate extent by a trend toward the service sector because of the importance of tourism, which transformed the economic and social character of the rural Alpine areas. In addition, a heavy burden was removed from the economy in 1953, when the Soviet government declared that it would pay its own occupation costs (as the United States had done since 1947). 50) Which role did Austria play in the international community after 1955 in particular because of its neutrality laws? On October 26, 1955, the government approved a federal constitutional law declaring Austria's permanent neutrality. Since 1965, October 26 has been celebrated in Austria as a national holiday - Republic Day. ffi ff ff fl ff fi  In the period 1957-1965, the elected socialist A. Scherf was the president of Austria. During his presidency, an agreement was concluded between the USSR and Austria on mutual supplies of goods for 1958-1960. Neutral Austria has gained great prestige in the world. In that capacity, Austria provided for large numbers of refugees from eastern Europe; it also functioned as a transit link for Jewish émigrés from the U.S.S.R. In 1955, Austria joined the UN. On November 20, 1959, in Stockholm, at the conference of the nance ministers of Austria, Denmark, Great Britain, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland, the convention establishing the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is signed. In Innsbruck, the Winter Olympic Games were held two times. At the end of 1969, Italy and Austria reached an agreement, according to which South Tyrol received the rights of extended autonomy, the in uence of the Tyroleans on the national policy in the province increased, the German language received the corresponding status and the German name of the territory was recognized. In 1971, former Austrian Foreign Minister Kurt Waldheim was elected UN Secretary General, and in 1976 he was re-elected for a second term. ——— The uprising of the Hungarian population against the communist regime begins and becomes the rst test of Austrian neutrality. More than 220,000 refugees have been received in Austria; At the debate on Hungary at the UN General Assembly, Austria resolutely maintained its position, despite its dissatisfaction with the Soviet regime. There were also some problems to unite with EU, however then the USSR agreed to do this. 51) How did the Republic of Austria deal with the former National Socialists after 1945? The "victim theory" became a fundamental myth of Austrian society. It made it possible for previously political opponents – i.e. the social democrats and the conservative Catholics – to unite and to bring former fl fi fi Nazis back to the social and political life for the rst time in Austrian history. For almost half a century, the Austrian state denied any continuity of the political regime of 1938–1945, actively kept up the self-sacri cing myth of Austrian nationhood, and cultivated a conservative spirit of national unity. Postwar denazi cation was quickly nished; veterans of the Wehrmacht and the Wa en-SS took an honorable place in society. The struggle for justice by the actual victims of Nazism – rst of all Jews – were deprecated as an attempt to obtain illegal enrichment at the expense of the entire nation. In 1986, the election of a former Wehrmacht intelligence o cer, Kurt Waldheim, as a federal president put Austria on the verge of international isolation. Powerful outside pressure and an internal political discussion forced Austrians to reconsider their attitude to the past. Starting with the political administration of the 1990s and followed by most of the Austrian people by the mid-2000s, the nation admitted its collective responsibility for the crimes committed during the Nazi occupation and o cially abandoned the "victim theory". 52) Describe the political landscape of Austria in the rst decades after the Second World War? Unlike the First Republic, which had been characterized by sometimes violent con ict between the di erent political groups, the Second Republic became a stable democracy. The two largest leading parties, the Christian-democratic Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) and the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ), remained in a coalition led by the ÖVP until 1966. The Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ), who had hardly any support in the Austrian electorate, remained in the coalition until 1950 and in parliament until the 1959 election. For much of the Second Republic, the only opposition party was the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which included German nationalist and liberal political currents. fl fi ff fi ff fi fi ffi ffi fi fi The two major parties strived (strove) towards ending allied occupation and restoring a fully independent Austria. The Austrian State Treaty was signed on 15 May 1955. Upon the end of allied occupation, Austria was proclaimed a neutral country, and endless neutrality was incorporated into the Constitution on 26 October 1955. The political system of the Second Republic was characterized by the system of Proporz (Proportionality), meaning that posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the SPÖ (Social Democratic Party) and ÖVP (the Christian-democratic Austrian People's Party). The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments. From 1962, disagreement over economic problems generated tension between the coalition parties. The annual budget led to grave disunity in the coalition, and in the autumn of 1965 the government resigned and called new elections. The elections, held on March 6, 1966, brought a setback for the Socialist Party, and the Austrian People’s Party was returned to parliament with an absolute majority. Negotiations for a new coalition government failed. The ÖVP-SPÖ coalition ended in 1966, when the ÖVP gained a majority in parliament. There was also one interesting case regarding the Kurt Waldheim and his Nazi’s past. In 1971 he was nominated as a candidate for the post of federal president of Austria from the Austrian People's Party (OVP), but was defeated. In the same year, Kurt Waldheim was elected Secretary General, and in 1976 he was re-elected by the UN for a second term. In the USSR, it was positive to him. In 1986, Kurt Waldheim was again nominated for the presidency of Austria. Even though there were evidence of his Nazi’s past, on June 8, 1986, Kurt Waldheim was actually elected President of Austria for one term. The years of his occupation were marked by the worsening of relations with a number of countries: Israel at that time recalled its ambassador from Austria. In addition, Waldheim was denied visits to the United States and most European and Western countries. 53) What are the main achievements of the „new women's movement" of 1969 and 1979 in Austria? The 1970s in Austria were characterized by reform and change both within the Austrian society as well as the Austrian political system. A new civil society started to emerge. The demand for greater autonomy, equality as well as the protection of the environment were supported by numerous protests. It was during that time that the “New Women’s Movement” was formed that demanded equality and more rights for women. The “New Feminist movement” emerged alongside the general protest movements in the 1960s and 1970s as well as a reaction to largely patriarchal structures. De ning itself as a feminist counter- movement, it questioned the role of the woman in Austrian society as a whole and focused on navigating the public discussion towards issues like health care and social security, sexuality, refuges, cultural associations as well as publishing houses and magazines. Despite all these e orts, a legal system was still in place that supported old-fashioned views of the female role in society: A reform seemed unavoidable. The Reform of old Structures The 1970’s led to unprecedented achievements in terms of equality for men and women and women’s rights: A moderate reform of the Austrian penal code had taken place, providing the decriminalization of homosexual conduct between adults, marital disturbance and adultery. In 1971, besides major economic reform steps like the introduction of the VAT (valued added tax), forty-hour working week legislation and measures to restructure state industries, the Government enacted milestone social legislation through a major reform of the penal code, gender equality provisions, marriage grants, free school books, or the mother-child card (a pre-natal/post-natal care and infant health program). One controversial provision accompanying these reforms was the so- called “Fristenregelung,” which legalized abortion within the rst three ff fi fi months of pregnancy on the condition of a preliminary medical consultation. The latter provision met strong criticism from the Catholic Church. The new Austrian Family Law Following the reform of the Austrian penal code, was changed in 1975: With the reform, the patriarchal system was replaced with a partnership-oriented model. The new law saw the marital couple as equal partners with equal rights and duties. The husband was no longer legally considered the leader of the family, able e.g. to keep his wife from nding a job. Women could hence decide if they wanted to keep their maiden name or take up the name of their husband. Parents were to decide jointly about the education and upbringing of their children and equal contributions to household duties were encouraged. The new family law also brought a major change to the divorce legislation as it became possible to be granted a divorce by mutual consent as well as to force a divorce in court despite the opposition of one’s spouse. The First Minister for Women’s A airs Another important step for the equality of women in Austrian society took place in 1979: Not only did the Austrian Equality Act, which focused on equal pay for men and women come into e ect, but that year also saw the establishment of the “Equal Treatment Commission” tasked with ensuring the equal treatment of men and women. The same year, the government introduced four new state secretary positions, all of which were occupied by women. This move came with a lot of criticism not only from the outside but also from within his own part. fi ff ff