Hist Rich Final PDF

Create as many After the Civil War and Reconstruction The end of the Civil War (1865) Surrender of the Confederacy: General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia (April 9, 1865). Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln: (April 14, 1865) Creates uncertainty about the future...

Create as many After the Civil War and Reconstruction The end of the Civil War (1865) Surrender of the Confederacy: General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia (April 9, 1865). Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln: (April 14, 1865) Creates uncertainty about the future of Reconstruction. Southern economy in ruins, infrastructure destroyed, slavery abolished, and millions of formerly enslaved people now free. Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1867) President Andrew Johnson's Plan for Reconstruction: Lenient towards the South. Amnesty for most Confederates. Restoration of property (except slaves) to those who pledged loyalty to the Union. Required Southern states to ratify the 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery). Did not support African American political or civil rights. Southern Response: Black Codes: Southern states pass laws to restrict the freedom of African Americans, controlling labor and movement. Violence and Resistance: Southern whites, including ex-Confederates, resist the federal government's attempts at enforcing emancipation and reform. Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction (1867-1877) Radical Republicans Take Control: Congress rejects Johnson’s lenient policies. Passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867: divided the South into five military districts to oversee the rebuilding process and protect African Americans. Key Legislation and Amendments: 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law for all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including African Americans. 15th Amendment (1870): Granted African American men the right to vote. Freedmen's Bureau: Established to aid freedmen and impoverished whites in the South by providing food, housing, education, and legal assistance. Helped establish schools for African Americans and offered protection in labor contracts. African American Participation in Government: African Americans were elected to local, state, and federal offices during this period, with some holding positions of significant power. Hiram Revels becomes the first African American U.S. senator (1870). Southern Resistance to Reconstruction: Ku Klux Klan and White Supremacy: The rise of violent groups like the KKK aimed at terrorizing African Americans and preventing them from exercising their rights. Carpetbaggers and Scalawags: Northern whites (carpetbaggers) and Southern white Republicans (scalawags) who supported Reconstruction were often vilified and targeted by Southern whites. Economic Changes and Challenges Sharecropping and Tenant Farming: With the end of slavery, the Southern economy was reorganized around sharecropping, a system that often trapped African Americans and poor whites in cycles of debt and poverty. Plantation owners offered land and supplies in exchange for a share of the crop, but high-interest rates and manipulation of the system led to economic dependence. Decline of the Southern Economy: The war had devastated the South's infrastructure, transportation systems, and agricultural production. Efforts to diversify the economy (industrial development) were largely unsuccessful during this period. The Collapse of Reconstruction (1873-1877) The Panic of 1873: A national economic depression weakened Northern resolve to enforce Reconstruction, as attention shifted to economic recovery. Northern Fatigue and Growing Opposition to Reconstruction: Growing disillusionment in the North over the cost and effectiveness of Reconstruction. White Southerners regaining power and opposing federal interventions. The Compromise of 1877: The contested 1876 presidential election led to a compromise where Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was given the presidency in exchange for withdrawing federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction. Rise of Jim Crow and the “Redemption” South "Redemption" Governments: After the withdrawal of federal troops, Southern Democrats (often former Confederates) regained control of Southern state governments and instituted policies that reversed many Reconstruction-era reforms. Jim Crow Racial Violence Legacy of Reconstruction Short-Term Successes: Reconstruction resulted in temporary gains for African Americans, such as political participation and access to education. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments laid a legal foundation for future civil rights movements. Long-Term Failures: The failure to redistribute land or achieve lasting economic independence for African Americans. The quick rollback of political and social advancements after Reconstruction ended. The persistence of racial segregation and disenfranchisement for nearly a century, leading to the Civil Rights Movement of the mid-20th century. Civil rights expanded We actually make some progress! During Reconstruction we see some significant civil rights gains for African Americans: The abolishment of slavery through the 13th Amendment The granting of citizenship and equal protection under the law through the 14th Amendment The right to vote regardless of race through the 15th Amendment (only men) Political Power African-Americans formed the overwhelming majority of Southern Republican voters 16 (*or more) African-Americans served in Congress during Reconstruction Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce in the U. S. Senate Over 600 in state legislatures hundreds more in local offices, from sheriffs to justices of the peace Blacks did not gain more “power” than whites, but this was a dramatic change Also created major hostility from Southern whites and opponents to Reconstruction Hiram Revels Born free in North Carolina (1827) Served as minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church Chaplain during the Civil War First African-American to serve to the United States Senate Appointed by the Mississippi state legislature to fill a vacant position Served just 1 year Quickly became an outspoken opponent of racial segregation Blanche K. Bruce Born into slavery, 1841 Grew up in Virginia and Missouri where he got education from tutor’s hired to teach his master’s son Escapes to Kansas during Civil War Elected to United States Senate in Mississippi in 1874 Serves from 1875 - 1881 First African-American to preside over the Senate in 1789 His portrait hangs in the Capitol What were the goals Reconstruction? 1. Reunification of the Union Following the Civil War, Southern states had to be brought back into the United States. Congress and the presidency had to determine the requirements these states must meet to rejoin the Union fully, which included creating new state constitutions that aligned with Union principles and ensured loyalty to the U.S. Establishment of Federal Authority: Reconstruction aimed to ensure the federal government’s authority was respected throughout all states, particularly in matters related to citizenship, civil rights, and suffrage, establishing a precedent for stronger federal intervention if states violated these rights. 2. Transformation of Southern Society The abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment was fundamental, but Reconstruction also sought to ensure former slaves could live freely without coercion or forced labor and could own property, work, and move freely. The goal was not only to free Black Americans physically but also to integrate them as equal citizens within society, a radical change for the South. The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all born or naturalized in the U.S., providing equal protection under the 3. Establishing Civil Rights for Freedmen Civil and Legal Rights: Reconstruction sought to secure Black Americans' rights to property, due process, and freedom from racial discrimination. The Freedmen’s Bureau was created to help former slaves transition to freedom, provide education, and mediate labor contracts. Right to Vote and Political Participation: Extending voting rights to Black men was a key component, leading to the 15th Amendment. Many formerly enslaved people participated in politics, with some becoming legislators and senators, a significant step towards political empowerment. 4. Economic Reconstruction and Land Redistribution Economic Independence for Freedmen: Efforts included providing land and economic resources to formerly enslaved people, though actual redistribution was limited and met with resistance. While ideas like “40 acres and a mule” were floated, little land was redistributed, and many Black families remained economically dependent on white landowners through sharecropping and tenant farming. Southern Economic Transition: Reconstruction aimed to diversify the Southern economy beyond agriculture. This shift faced resistance. Plantation-based economy was deeply entrenched, but it was necessary to rebuild the Southern economy in a more sustainable and fair way. 5. Establishing New Social Norms and Institutions Education and Community Support: Reconstruction emphasized establishing schools, churches, and community centers to foster an independent Black society. Education became a crucial goal as freedmen and women sought literacy to improve their status and understand their rights fully. Protection from White Supremacy and Violence: Federal troops were deployed to the South to maintain order and protect Black citizens from violence, especially from groups like the Ku Klux Klan, which used terror to resist these changes. 6. Long-Term National Unity and Reconciliation We need reconciliation between the North and South and we needed to heal the country after four years of Civil War. However, this goal often clashed with the more radical social reforms Reconstruction sought to implement, and many compromises were made at the expense of Black rights and Southern transformation. How do you think Southerners respond to the Reconstruction plan? 1. Political Resistance and "Redemption" Southern white Democrats, often called "Redeemers," sought to "redeem" the South from what they saw as Northern and Black political control. By the mid-1870s, Redeemers began reclaiming state governments through a mix of political strategy and violence, aiming to dismantle Reconstruction policies. To suppress Black and Republican votes, Southern whites used tactics like literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation. Many Southern states adjusted election laws and even conducted fraud to ensure white Democrats regained control 2. Violent Opposition Groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), founded in 1865, used terror tactics to intimidate Black Americans and their allies. Nightly raids, lynchings, and threats became common, targeting those who tried to exercise their new rights or participated in Reconstruction governments. Events like the Colfax Massacre (1873) in Louisiana, where over a hundred Black citizens were killed, and the Hamburg Massacre (1876) in South Carolina were extreme examples of violence against Black Americans. These incidents were aimed at deterring Black political participation and reclaiming control over local governments. 3. Legal Resistance Black Codes: Passed in Southern states shortly after the Civil War, Black Codes severely restricted the freedoms of Black people, attempting to force them into labor contracts that mimicked slavery. They limited movement, employment options, and other civil liberties. Later Jim Crow Laws: While Jim Crow laws were fully institutionalized after Reconstruction ended, the foundations were laid during this period. Segregation and legal restrictions on Black rights became a long-lasting strategy to resist the social changes brought by Reconstruction. Supreme Court Decisions: Over time, Supreme Court decisions like Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) cemented segregation, declaring it constitutional as long as facilities were "separate but equal," giving Southern states legal justification for institutionalized racism. 4. Economic Control Many former enslaved people became sharecroppers or tenant farmers. These systems allowed white landowners to maintain control over Black labor and keep Black families economically dependent. This led to cycles of debt and poverty, making it nearly impossible for many Black families to achieve economic independence. Whites in certain industries refused to hire Black workers, reserving skilled and higher-paid jobs for white men. This limited Black mobility and kept them in the lowest-paying, least-secure jobs. 5. Social and Cultural Responses White Southerners, including groups like the United Daughters of the Confederacy, promoted the "Lost Cause" myth, which framed the Confederate cause as noble and denied the centrality of slavery in the Civil War. This revisionist history attempted to justify the South’s actions and portray Reconstruction as a time of Northern oppression. Church and Social Influence: White churches and social organizations often reinforced racial hierarchy, with many white clergy supporting segregation and portraying Reconstruction governments as corrupt. This widespread social endorsement of racism further isolated Black communities and legitimized discriminatory actions. 6. Federal Government Retraction Over time, the federal government reduced its intervention in the South as Northern interest in Reconstruction waned. The Compromise of 1877, which effectively ended Reconstruction, saw the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This allowed Southern white Democrats to dismantle Reconstruction gains almost entirely, ushering in the Jim Crow era, where Black Americans were systematically disenfranchised and segregated. The New South 4 million: the number of enslaved people now free and living in the south The new south White population is scared and fights change KKK Political corruption Economic exploitation Violence Intimidation “New South” same old rules Jim Crow Laws were used to keep status quo and segregate white life from black life. Segregated schools, transportation, employment, public and private facilities White leaders fighting to reestablish their “supremacy” and remind the African American community “where they belong” Jim Crow Era: More than unjust laws, it was the way of life Started in 1870s and lasted until the late 1960s Legitimized racism and abuse Why Jim Crow? Jim Crow Era New laws made legal what was once custom in the South Segregated nearly all parts of public life Schools Bathrooms Pools Water fountains Public transit Stores Concert halls Restaurants Plessy v Ferguson, 1896 - “separate but equal” Social lives were also segregated Laws against interracial marriage Voting laws Ballot stuffing and intimidation Poll taxes Requiring literacy tests Violation of Jim Crow laws resulted in serious, and often fatal, consequences Jim Crow Expectations A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a black male could not offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he risked being accused of rape. Under no circumstance was a black male to offer to light the cigarette of a white female -- that gesture implied intimacy. Black people were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing, because it offended white people. White people did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to black people, for example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, black people were called by their first names. Black people had to use courtesy titles when referring to white people, and were not allowed to call them by their first names. If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the black person sat in the back seat, or the back of a truck. White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections. Courtesy: https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/what.htm Never assert or even intimate that a white person is lying. Never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person. Never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class. Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence. Never curse a white person. Never laugh derisively at a white person. Never comment upon the appearance of a white female. Courtesy: https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/what.htm Lynching 4743 lynching in the u.s from 1882 to 1968 (NAACP) 72% of people lynching were black (NAACP) Judge, Jury and Executioner Lynchings were more than murders. They were ritualistic and mob oriented public acts of torture, mutilation and murder. Accused did not face any kind of trial or receive due process Criminal accusation (often false), arrest (sometimes), mob assembles, seizure, torture, murder Lynching What is being done today to remember this tragic part of our country's history? Lynching in America Remembering John Hartfield Racial Terror Lynchings A Red Record Last recorded lynching in U.S. Lynching today? Washington Post, August 8, 2021 By DeNeen L. Brown Since 2000, there have been at least eight suspected lynchings of Black men and teenagers in Mississippi, according to court records and police reports. “The last recorded lynching in the United States was in 1981,” said Jill Collen Jefferson, a lawyer and founder of Julian, a civil rights organization named after the late civil rights leader Julian Bond. “But the thing is, lynchings never stopped in the United States. Lynchings in Mississippi never stopped. The evil bastards just stopped taking photographs and passing them around like baseball cards.” Election of 1876 and Compromise of 1877 Election of 1876 1. Candidates Rutherford B. Hayes: Governor of Ohio, representing the Republican Party. Samuel J. Tilden: Governor of New York, representing the Democratic Party. 2. Election Context During reconstruction there was significant political tension over the role of federal troops in the South and the treatment of formerly enslaved people. The economy was struggling due to the Panic of 1873, making economic issues a focal point of the campaigns. 3. Popular and Electoral Votes Tilden won the popular vote with about 4.3 million votes (51% of the vote) to Hayes' 4.0 million votes (48%). In the Electoral College, Tilden received 184 electoral votes — just one vote shy of the 185 needed to win. Hayes received 165 electoral votes, but 20 electoral votes from four states (Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon) were disputed due to alleged fraud and intimidation. 4. Resolution of Disputes To settle the dispute, Congress established a bipartisan Electoral Commission in January 1877. The commission was comprised of five Senators, five House members, and five Supreme Court justices, with a one-seat majority in favor of the Republicans. The commission awarded all 20 disputed electoral votes to Hayes, giving him a final count of 185 to Tilden’s 184, effectively making Hayes the winner by a single electoral vote. Compromise of 1877 Establishment of the Electoral Commission To resolve the disputed results, Congress formed an Electoral Commission in January 1877, which ultimately awarded the disputed votes to Hayes, allowing him to win the presidency by one electoral vote (185-184). The legitimacy of the commission’s decision was challenged, leading to negotiations between Republican and Democratic leaders to avoid a constitutional crisis. Terms of the Compromise In a series of backroom agreements, Southern Democrats agreed to support Hayes’s presidency in exchange for several concessions: Removal of Federal Troops: The remaining federal troops stationed in the South (specifically in Louisiana and South Carolina) would be withdrawn. This effectively ended federal enforcement of Reconstruction policies. Federal Investments in the South: The federal government promised funding for infrastructure projects in the South, including railroads, to help revitalize the region's economy. Southern Representation in Hayes’ Cabinet: At least one Southern Democrat would be appointed to Hayes’ cabinet, fulfilling the Republicans' promise to give the South a greater voice in federal affairs. Local Control over Racial Issues: Republicans agreed not to interfere in Southern state matters, essentially allowing Southern governments to handle racial issues as they saw fit. This led to the rollback of many rights and protections for African Americans in the South. Why does this matter? What were the consequences of this compromise? End of Reconstruction: Federal troops had enforced Reconstruction policies, which had protected African American rights, especially voting rights. Withdrawing the troops left Southern Black citizens vulnerable to state-sanctioned discrimination. Rise of Jim Crow Laws: Southern states quickly took advantage and passed laws that institutionalized racial segregation and disenfranchised Black citizens Lasting Economic and Social Impact: The end of federal intervention allowed Southern elites to regain power, further entrenching a system of racial and economic inequality that would persist well into the 20th I. Population Trends 1860s: ~12 million; primarily rural and agricultural. 1900s: ~24 million; still rural, start of industrialization. 1950s: ~39 million; influenced by WWII, rural-to-urban migration. 2000s: ~100 million; urban centers dominate. 2023: ~130 million; four of the ten most populated U.S. states are in the South. II. Post-Civil War Challenges Economic Devastation: Infrastructure and economy heavily damaged. Abolition of Slavery: Shift from slave labor to sharecropping and wage labor. III. Industrial Growth 1. Railroads Rail mileage doubled (1865–1880) and tripled (1880–1900). Expanded cotton culture and spurred development of interior cities. 2. Major Industries Textile Mills: Centered in the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama.Shift from plantation to factory production. Rise of mill towns with paternalistic control. Iron and Steel: Focus in Birmingham, Alabama. Convict leasing and later chain gangs provided labor. Lumber: Dominated by southern pine; employed 20% of Southern industrial workers by 1900. Tobacco: Mechanized cigarette production in North Carolina led by families like the Dukes. IV. Labor Conditions Transition to Wage Labor: Opportunities remained limited for Black Americans. Child and Family Labor: Entire families worked in harsh conditions in textiles. Labor Movements: Strikes (e.g., Coal Creek War) targeted low wages and exploitative systems. V. Social and Cultural Shifts Urbanization: Growth of cities like Atlanta, Birmingham, Charlotte. Educational Advances: Vocational training and technical schools emerged. Racial Tensions: Segregation persisted in industries and urban areas. VI. The Coal Creek War Protest against convict leasing in Tennessee (1891–1893). Miners opposed replacement by convict labor. Resulted in Tennessee abolishing convict leasing in 1893.VII. Legacy of Industrialization Economic Diversification: Beyond agriculture to include industries like technology and energy. Migration Patterns: "Sun Belt" appeal due to low cost of living and job opportunities. Cultural Transformation: Increased diversity and urbanization. Key Themes Transition from an agricultural to industrial economy. Challenges of modernization: labor exploitation, racial inequality, and dependency on raw materials. Long-term effects: rapid urbanization, diversified economy, and a growing population in the Sun Belt 1. World War II Context Global Crisis to Global War: Economic collapse after WWI led to WWII. Germany faced devastation: disarmament, loss of territory, reparations, and economic hardship. U.S. Entry: Abandoned isolationism, eventually joining WWII after Pearl Harbor. 2. Wartime Economy Economic Impact: Shifted the U.S. from depression to prosperity. Factories produced war materials. Women and minorities joined the workforce. Rationing and war bonds were key. 3. African Americans in WWII Roles and Contributions: 1.2 million African Americans served, mainly in segregated units. Tuskegee Airmen: Highly decorated missions. "Double V" Campaign: Victory abroad and civil rights at home. 4. Post-War America Economic Transformation: South shifted from agriculture to industry. Federal projects modernized infrastructure. G.I. Bill enabled higher education and home ownership. The Affluent Society: Economic growth, but inequality persisted (women, minorities, etc.). 5. Early Civil Rights Milestones Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared "separate but equal" unconstitutional. Showed systemic inequality in education. Little Rock Nine (1957): Integration of Central High School in Arkansas amidst opposition. Ruby Bridges (1960): First African American to integrate an all-white elementary school. 6. Key Civil Rights Cases Emmett Till (1955): Brutal murder highlighted racial violence. Inspired Rosa Parks and fueled the movement. Sarah Keys (1953): Refused to give up her seat; Interstate Commerce Commission ruled against segregation. Rosa Parks (1955): Sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, energizing the civil rights movement. 7. Legislative Changes Civil Rights Act of 1957: First major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. Strengthened federal authority to investigate and prosecute voting rights violations. 8. Suburbanization and Social Change Post-War Suburbia: GI Bill and federal programs boosted homeownership. Suburban growth reflected prosperity but highlighted racial and class disparities. The Civil Rights movement Historical Context and Organization Key Organizations and Leadership NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): Early legal battles (e.g., Brown v. Board of Education in 1954). SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference): Founded by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and others, emphasizing nonviolent resistance. SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee): Youth-driven, grassroots organizing, prominent in sit-ins and Freedom Rides. CORE (Congress of Racial Equality): Played a significant role in Freedom Rides and the March on Washington. Strategies and Tactics Nonviolent Direct Action: Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, used in boycotts, sit-ins, marches (e.g., Montgomery Bus Boycott, Greensboro Sit-ins). Legal Challenges: Landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education. Grassroots Mobilization: Local leaders (e.g., Fannie Lou Hamer in Mississippi) and movements like voter registration drives. Media Utilization: Role of television and print media in showcasing brutality (e.g., Selma marches, Birmingham campaign). Resistance to the Movement White Citizens’ Councils and KKK: Organized opposition, often violent, to integration and civil rights efforts. Southern Manifesto: Political resistance to desegregation by Southern congressmen. Massive Resistance: State-level policies to block federal desegregation orders. Civil rights time line July 26, 1948: President Harry Truman issues Executive Order 9981 to end segregation in the Armed Services. May 17, 1954: Brown v. Board of Education, a consolidation of five cases into one, is decided by the Supreme Court, effectively ending racial segregation in public schools. Many schools, however, remained segregated. August 28, 1955: Emmett Till, a 14-year-old from Chicago is brutally murdered in Mississippi for allegedly flirting with a white woman. His murderers are acquitted, and the case bring international attention to the civil rights movement after Jet magazine publishes a photo of Till’s beaten body at his open-casket funeral. December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Her defiant stance prompts a year-long Montgomery bus boycott. January 10-11, 1957: Sixty Black pastors and civil rights leaders from several southern states—including Martin Luther King Jr.—meet in Atlanta, Georgia to coordinate nonviolent protests against racial discrimination and segregation. September 4, 1957: Nine Black students known as the “Little Rock Nine” are blocked from integrating into Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. President Dwight D. Eisenhower eventually sends federal troops to escort the students, however, they continue to be harassed. September 9, 1957: Eisenhower signs the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law to help protect voter rights. The law allows federal prosecution of those who suppress another’s right to vote. February 1, 1960: Four African American college students in Greensboro, North Carolina refuse to leave a Woolworth’s “whites only” lunch counter without being served. The Greensboro Four—Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, Franklin McCain and Joseph McNeil—were inspired by the nonviolent protest of Gandhi. The Greensboro Sit-In, as it came to be called, sparks similar “sit-ins” throughout the city and in other states. November 14, 1960: Six-year-old Ruby Bridges is escorted by four armed federal marshals as she becomes the first student to integrate William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans. Her actions inspired Norman Rockwell’s painting The Problem We All Live With (1964). 1961: Throughout 1961, Black and white activists, known as freedom riders, took bus trips through the American South to protest segregated bus terminals and attempted to use “whites-only” restrooms and lunch counters. The Freedom Rides were marked by horrific violence from white protestors, they drew international attention to their cause. May 2, 1963: More than 1,000 Black school children march through Birmingham, Alabama in a demonstration against segregation. The goal of the non-violent demonstration, which became known as the "Children’s Crusade," was to provoke the city’s leaders to desegregate. Although the police were mostly restrained the first day, that did not continue. Law enforcement brought out water hoses and police dogs. Journalists documented the young demonstrators getting arrested and hosed down by the Birmingham police, causing national outrage. Eventually an agreement was made to desegregate lunch counters, businesses and restrooms and improve hiring opportunities for Black people in Birmingham. June 11, 1963: Governor George C. Wallace stands in a doorway at the University of Alabama to block two Black students from registering. The standoff continues until President John F. Kennedy sends the National Guard to the campus. August 28, 1963: Approximately 250,000 people take part in The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Martin Luther King gives his “I Have A Dream” speech as the closing address in front of the Lincoln Memorial, stating, “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.’” September 15, 1963: A bomb at 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama kills four young girls and injures several other people prior to Sunday services. The bombing fuels angry protests. July 2, 1964: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law, preventing employment discrimination due to race, color, sex, religion or national origin. Title VII of the Act establishes the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to help prevent workplace discrimination. February 21, 1965: Black religious leader Malcolm X is assassinated during a rally by members of the Nation of Islam. March 7, 1965: Bloody Sunday. In the Selma to Montgomery March, around 600 civil rights marchers walk to Selma, Alabama to Montgomery—the state’s capital—in protest of Black voter suppression. Local police block and brutally attack them. After successfully fighting in court for their right to march, Martin Luther King and other civil rights leaders lead two more marches and finally reach Montgomery on March 25. August 6, 1965: President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to prevent the use of literacy tests as a voting requirement. It also allowed federal examiners to review voter qualifications and federal observers to monitor polling places. April 4, 1968: Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated on the balcony of his hotel room in Memphis, Tennessee. James Earl Ray is convicted of the murder in 1969. April 11, 1968: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act, providing equal housing opportunity regardless of race, religion or national origin. The Aftermath of Assassination “The murder of King changed the whole dynamic of the country.” - Black Panther Kathleen Cleaver Violence erupted in more than 125 American cities across 29 states. Nearly 50,000 federal troops occupied America’s urban areas. Thirty-nine people were killed and 3,500 injured. These uprisings produced more property damage, arrests, and injuries than any other uprising of the 1960s. King’s death energized the Black Power Movement. Black Americans felt even more distrustful of white institutions and America’s political system. Impact and Legacy Shift in Political Party Alignments: The Democratic Party increasingly embraced civil rights, while many white Southerners shifted allegiance to the Republican Party, reshaping American political landscapes. Black Political Representation: The Voting Rights Act and other reforms facilitated the election of Black leaders at local, state, and national levels, including historic milestones like Barack Obama’s presidency. Inspiration for Other Movements Women’s Rights Movement: Techniques and frameworks from civil rights campaigns influenced feminist organizing in the 1960s and 1970s. LGBTQ+ Rights Movement: Activists adapted the language of civil rights to demand equality for LGBTQ+ individuals, evident in campaigns like the Stonewall Riots (1969). Disability Rights Movement: Advocates used similar tactics, such as protests and legal challenges, leading to landmark legislation like the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Indigenous Rights Movements: Native American groups like AIM (American Indian Movement) drew inspiration from civil rights struggles to fight for sovereignty and rights. Continuing Struggles and Unfinished Work Systemic Racism: While overt discrimination has declined, systemic inequities in education, housing, employment, and criminal justice persist. Police Brutality and Black Lives Matter: Contemporary movements like BLM echo the Civil Rights Movement’s calls for justice, focusing on issues like police violence and systemic oppression. 1. Historical Democratic Dominance (Post-Reconstruction Era) Solid South Formation: Post-1877, Southern states became a Democratic stronghold due to opposition to Reconstruction and association with white supremacy. Economic Roots: Agrarian economy aligned with Democratic policies prioritizing rural interests. African American Support for Republicans: The Republican Party was viewed as anti-slavery and pro-civil rights during this era. 2. Challenges to the Solid South New Deal Coalition (1930s): Initially supported by Southerners, but increasing focus on labor rights and social programs alienated wealthier landowners. The Great Migration: African Americans moved to Northern cities and began shifting to the Democratic Party for its pro-labor and social welfare policies. 3. Civil Rights Era and Fractures Harry Truman’s Civil Rights Stance (1948): Supported desegregation and anti-lynching laws, leading to the formation of the Dixiecrats. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Supreme Court ruling for school desegregation alienated many Southern whites. Eisenhower’s Moderate Approach: His enforcement of desegregation in Little Rock gained limited Southern support. 4. Republican Ascendancy and the Southern Strategy Barry Goldwater (1964): Opposed the Civil Rights Act, appealing to white Southern voters against federal civil rights intervention. Richard Nixon (1968, 1972): Used the "Southern Strategy," emphasizing states' rights and law-and-order to attract disaffected Southern whites. 5. Cultural and Social Reinforcements Religious Right’s Rise (1970s-1980s): Evangelical Christians aligned with Republican stances on social issues like abortion and school prayer. Opposition to Busing: Desegregation efforts through busing met resistance, becoming a focal issue for conservatives. Reagan Era (1980s): Solidified Southern Republican support through cultural conservatism, anti-communism, and free-market policies. 6. Decline of Democratic Influence Clinton and the 1990s: Despite being Southern Democrats, Clinton and Gore struggled to win Southern states, signaling a Republican stronghold. Modern Democratic Struggles: By the 2000s, Democrats faced significant challenges in the South, retaining support primarily among African Americans and urban voters. 7. Modern Southern Politics (2000s-Present) Republican Dominance: Southern states consistently vote Republican in presidential and congressional elections. Emerging Trends: Urbanization and increasing diversity in states like Georgia, Texas, and North Carolina may challenge Republican control in the future. 8. Key Issues Over Time Busing and Integration: Controversial tool to combat residential segregation. White flight and political opposition limited its long-term impact. Cultural Traditionalism: Resistance to liberal social changes fueled Republican support. Issues like gun rights, family values, and opposition to communism shaped voter priorities. Key Terms Solid South: Period of Democratic dominance in the Southern U.S. Dixiecrats: Southern Democrats who opposed civil rights reforms. Southern Strategy: Republican effort to attract Southern white voters. Religious Right: Political mobilization of conservative Christians. Important Figures Harry Truman: Advocated for civil rights, causing fractures in the Democratic Party. Barry Goldwater: His campaign marked a shift toward Republican alignment in the South. Ronald Reagan: Solidified the South as a Republican stronghold with his policies. 1. Historical Democratic Dominance (Post-Reconstruction Era) Solid South Formation: Post-1877, Southern states became a Democratic stronghold due to opposition to Reconstruction and association with white supremacy. Economic Roots: Agrarian economy aligned with Democratic policies prioritizing rural interests. African American Support for Republicans: The Republican Party was viewed as anti-slavery and pro-civil rights during this era. 2. Challenges to the Solid South New Deal Coalition (1930s): Initially supported by Southerners, but increasing focus on labor rights and social programs alienated wealthier landowners. The Great Migration: African Americans moved to Northern cities and began shifting to the Democratic Party for its pro-labor and social welfare policies. 3. Civil Rights Era and Fractures Harry Truman’s Civil Rights Stance (1948): Supported desegregation and anti-lynching laws, leading to the formation of the Dixiecrats. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Supreme Court ruling for school desegregation alienated many Southern whites. Eisenhower’s Moderate Approach: His enforcement of desegregation in Little Rock gained limited Southern support. 4. Republican Ascendancy and the Southern Strategy Barry Goldwater (1964): Opposed the Civil Rights Act, appealing to white Southern voters against federal civil rights intervention. Richard Nixon (1968, 1972): Used the "Southern Strategy," emphasizing states' rights and law-and-order to attract disaffected Southern whites. 5. Cultural and Social Reinforcements Religious Right’s Rise (1970s-1980s): Evangelical Christians aligned with Republican stances on social issues like abortion and school prayer. Opposition to Busing: Desegregation efforts through busing met resistance, becoming a focal issue for conservatives. Reagan Era (1980s): Solidified Southern Republican support through cultural conservatism, anti-communism, and free-market policies. 6. Decline of Democratic Influence Clinton and the 1990s: Despite being Southern Democrats, Clinton and Gore struggled to win Southern states, signaling a Republican stronghold. Modern Democratic Struggles: By the 2000s, Democrats faced significant challenges in the South, retaining support primarily among African Americans and urban voters. 7. Modern Southern Politics (2000s-Present) Republican Dominance: Southern states consistently vote Republican in presidential and congressional elections. Emerging Trends: Urbanization and increasing diversity in states like Georgia, Texas, and North Carolina may challenge Republican control in the future. 8. Key Issues Over Time Busing and Integration: Controversial tool to combat residential segregation. White flight and political opposition limited its long-term impact. Cultural Traditionalism: Resistance to liberal social changes fueled Republican support. Issues like gun rights, family values, and opposition to communism shaped voter priorities. Key Terms Solid South: Period of Democratic dominance in the Southern U.S. Dixiecrats: Southern Democrats who opposed civil rights reforms. Southern Strategy: Republican effort to attract Southern white voters. Religious Right: Political mobilization of conservative Christians. Important Figures Harry Truman: Advocated for civil rights, causing fractures in the Democratic Party. Barry Goldwater: His campaign marked a shift toward Republican alignment in the South. Ronald Reagan: Solidified the South as a Republican stronghold with his policies.