HIST 103 Lecture Notes PDF

HIST 103 Sept. 12, 2024 - Lecture Notes The Great Divergence ○ The process by which the economies of Europe and North America(NA) began to diverge from those of the rest of the world ○ Kenneth Pomeranz theory in book The Great Divergence ○ Pomeranz...

HIST 103 Sept. 12, 2024 - Lecture Notes The Great Divergence ○ The process by which the economies of Europe and North America(NA) began to diverge from those of the rest of the world ○ Kenneth Pomeranz theory in book The Great Divergence ○ Pomeranz The Great Div began between 1750 and 1800 Before the Great Div was a “world of resemblances” Pre 1800 - “a world of resemblances” Wealth, standard of living, econ activity, tech, etc. Ecological constraints ○ They limit pop growth and econ growth ○ Both west Eur and the Yangzi delta region(in China, more industrialized part of China) faced similar ecological constraints: deforestation, soil erosion, etc. ○ Both regions needed either an industrial breakthrough or more resources Vasco de Gama ○ Portuguese explorer in 15th century during Age of Exploration ○ Ottomans blocking route which meant he couldn’t go through europe and asia bc ottomans block that route, so went around africa ○ Gifts for the king of calicut King’s aides are like you came all this way this is all you have to give a king?! 70 yrs before de Gama: China’s Age of Exploration ○ Admiral zeng commanded a fleet of 28k men and 300 + vessels ○ 60 “treasure ships” nearly 400 ft long and a crew of 1k men ○ Columbus’s 3 ships, 85 feet long and a crew of 40 Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) ○ Growth of resources = linear ○ Pop growth = potentially exponential ○ This keeps population growth in check Causes of great Divergence ○ 1. Coal Britain historically used wood for fuel - eventually led to deforestation In 16th century, Britons turned to coal Coal deposits in britain Location: close to industry Quality: wet  The largest coal deposits in Europe Coal deposits in China Location: far from the Yangzi Delta Quality: Dry, so therefore much more explosive Chinese continued to use wood Watt steam engine(1776) Its original use? Coal mining! Coal extraction increase by 900% from 1700 to 1830 Steam engine as general-purpose technology steamboat(early 19th century) Trains (early 19th century) Steam turbocharged the Brit economy, turning it into the “workshop of the world” Global share of manufacturing, 1750=2006(above) Pollution in England during IR caused “Pea-soupers” The Great Smog of 1873: killed 1,100+ ppl How pollution affected ppl’s sensory experience Vincent Van Gogh An artist who spent 3 yrs living and working in London\before also living in Antwerp(Belg)... Shoes(1886), The Potato Eaters(1885), Head of a skeleton with a burning cigarette(1885-86), Vase with Twelve Sunflowers (1888), Starry Night(1889) Goes to FRA countryside + sees color for first time ○ 2. Colonies Portuguese Empire Looking for silks and spice from Asia Christopher Columbus reaches the Caribbean in 1492 Vasco de Gama reaches India six yrs later Brit + fra follow Port and Span EMpires By late 18th century brit has most powerful empire Brit + west eur incorporated the rest of the world into an increasingly global econ 1. Import from the americas: timber, sugar cotton, tobacco, etc. → land Stole humans from west africa and sold them as slaves in the americas → ppl And brit sold manufactured foods back to settlers in the americas → keep the cycle going Ghost acreage  =the amt of land brit would have needed to get the same amt of resources domestically rather than from the New World Eg, if Britain had gotten its fibers from domestic sheep instead of importing cotton By 1830, 25-30 mill ghost acres Brits total arable land was only 17 mill acres Remember Admiral Zheng He and China’s “treasure fleet”? Final voyage in 1430 By 1433 the voyages ended and soon the Ming implemented a “sea ban”, restricting maritime activity The Consequences of Coal and Colonies Between 1815 and 1900 ○ Brit coal output increased 14x ○ its sugar imports increased 11x, ○ cotton imports increased 20x Britain’s economy diverges from the rest of the world ○ Soon, the rest of Europe follows The Great Div powers a new age of empire at the end of the 19th century September 17, 2024 - Lecture Notes Empire ○ Empires have been a durable form of state Made up of diff and unequal groups Expansionary so they incorporate new groups ○ Nation state is a blip in human history that comes out of the 18-19 century, empires are ?old Colonization of the world Land area colonized and pop colonized going to grow dramatically until a third of pop live under colonial rule at start of WWI What drove imperial expansion in the 19th century? ○ 1. Technology Importance of steam engine and use of coal Steamboat(early 19th century) Most of africa not colonized in 1800s and parts colonized coastal bc most of africa hard to get to w/o steamboat Telegraphy First transatlantic cable laid in 1858-1859 Antimalarial drugs Active ingredient: quinine, which was derived from cinchona tree bark in 1820  The moment when the technological gap between the West and the rest became indisputable… Jan 7, ??1841?? The british ship Nemesis deployed in the Opium War China restricted foreign trade to Canton, beginning in 1757 Opium trade China’s emperor says no to opium imports So Britain launches war in ??1839?? Nemesis blows Chinese war junks to smithereens Treaty of Nanking(1842) 1. China to pay for losses and damages 2. Opened up China to “free trade”(opium imports) 3. British subjects in China to live under British laws, not CHina’s 4. ?? Tech enables empires to go abroad ○ 2. Resources The industrial revolution causes a “scavenger hunt” for resources around the world Resources we’ve talked about: coal, cotton, timber, sugar Quinine derived from the cinchona, a tree grown in the Andes South america largely independent but this going to push other places into south america to get cinchona Telegraphy Underwater cables were insulated with gutta-percha, derived from a tree in Southeast Asia Guano Bird poop Industrial agriculture depleted soil of nitrogen and phosphates Hundreds of years of bird poop collect, and all the guano will amass creating islands ○ Like Nauru ○ The island is made of guano ○ Germany colonized it in 1888 ○ A Brit-Ger company mined the guano Resources incentivize Euro empires to go abroad ○ 3. Competition Role of competition One empire could lock out another’s access to trade or specific resources End of the 19th century, the Dutch empire secured a global monopoly over high-quinine-yield cinchona trees  Grown in the Dutch East Indies Telegraphy Gutta-percha tree grown only in Malaya, which is a British colony ○ This means Brit has dominance over global telegraphy market to get gutta-percha ○ Of u want underwater long distance telegraphy need gutta-percha and have to get it from malaya Role of competition One empire could lock out another’s access to trade or specific resources Colonies added to an empire’s strength Imperial FOMO By end of 19th century, growing fear that the world was running out of spaces to colonize The US expands across the continent, completing the map in 1853 Berlin conference ○ Otto von Bismarck convened the Berlin conference (1884-1885) ○ Wanted imperial expansion to be orderly, systematic, reformist ○ Feared that Euro competition in Africa…? Delegates: ○ From euro and North America: A-H, Belg, Denm, FrA, GEr, GB, Ita… ○ Africa:...none, no africans invited Drawing lines on a map is easy, but what will this look like on the ground? King Leopold II(Belgium) ○ At the Berlin conference, Leopold sought to claim nearly the entire Congo Basin ○ A territory bigger than England, France, …combined ○ …. ○ Why? Claimed want to civilize the inhabitants But it was really about resources and FOMO ○ After the Conference, Leopold called it the Congo Free State ○ Not a Belgian colony ○ Rather his own personal colony so he's going to rule it through his own office How was the Congo Free State administered? ○ Minimal colonial administration ○ The number of Belgian officials ranged from 700 to 1500 for a population of 20 million ○ Relied on local elites, whom were paid with guns, to extract taxes Congo Free States rich in resources esp ivory  Ivory ○ In 1880s and 1890s, Leopold and his agents implemented system of extracting ivory ○ Uses of ivory: piano keys, billiard balls Rubber ○ A new resource to be used for tires during the “bicycle craze” of the 1890s ○ But also for hoses, tubing, gaskets. ○ And for rubber insulation for the telegraph, telephone, and electrical wiring ○ Btw 1890 and 1896, CFS increased its rubber exports by 10x E.D. Morel ○ Worked for a Brit shipping comanhy moving carfo btw congo and belgian, once from his office saw something from the docks What did he see Ships going to CFS, guns chains, explosives Ships arriving in Belg: rubber Evidence of a systematic regime of forced labor The Force Publique ○ Founded in 1886 ○ Officers were all white ○ Soldiers were African ○ A white FP officer confided to his journal in 1892: “The native doesn’t like making rubber. He must be compelled to do it.” The way they would be compelled is heroin Techniques of forced labor system Agents would travel to a village, round up all the women and hold them as hostages could go on for weeks until males in the village had gathered up a significant quantity of rubber Murder ○ If a village refused to submit to rubber…or company troops, sometimes hto everyone in sight so nearby villages get the message ○ But in some occasions some european officers mistrudtful, ……. E.D. Morel publishes Red Rubber in 1906 Morel does deep investigation into.. Practice Red rubber causes immediate outcry in Belgium and around world follows In 1908, Belgium buys Congo Free State from Leopold Belg bought CFS from their own monarch Specific system of forced labor under leo changed, but forced labor continued Forced labor would even continue into the 1930s and 1940s September 19, 2024 - Lecture Notes Nation ○ What is a nation? Class answers+prof explanation: Some sort of sense of shared history, shared language, sovereignty,...?community?, borders, shared sense of self like lang Benedict Anderson (political scientist) ○ A nation is an “imagined community,” and it is imagined to be both “inherently limited and sovereign” Imagined Limited Sovereign Since age of revs, late 18th century, 19th century, since then idea of divine rule had given way to idea of rule by the people Community Community relates to point of ppl being sovereign… Kenneth Pomeranz ○ Before 1800, there was a “world of resemblances” Across the world pre 1800, ppl are more alike The Ancien Régime ○ Dynastic rule: states across Europe and Asia were organized around hereditary monarch, usually divinely appointed The state = the king ○ Hierarchy was the norm ○ At the local level, lords ruled over land Feudalism is an arrangement of society and economy in which lords of the land, and peasants work the land - feudalism by definition is hierarchical ○ Political identity Invested in king, religion, village Hierarchy was the norm in the ancient regime French peasant sayings ○ “Hard times for the poor are as inevitable as ease for the rich.” ○ “Poor people’s bread always burns in the oven.” ○ “Don’t try to fart higher than your arse.” French Revolution: 1789 ○ King Louis XVI is demoted to “Citizen Louis”... …and then executed After the French Revolution\ ○ The state=the nation  All these ideas about liberty about society so it’s arranged as the nation The state now the nation not the king The moveable-type printing press invented in what is now GER (was the HRE) in 1440 ○ Creates market for books and eventually newspapers ○ Spreads vernacular languages (eg German, French, etc) rather religious languages(eg Latin) What ppl read before this who were literate at this time often printed in latin but not many ppl could read latin ○ National languages are central to the nation Why are newspapers important for helping create an imagined community? ○ For benedict anderson going to create this daily mass ceremony They are created daily(their date is on the top of the page) and hey expire by the end of the day ○ Anderson? Views as replacing morning prayers ○ They produce a mass ceremony Done in private But we can imagine the rest of the nation reading it at the same time September 24, 2024 Exam question example ○ Trace a sequence of causes and effects that explains how the invention of the Watt steam engine in 1776 led to King Leopold selling the Congo Free State to Belgium in 1908. The causal chain should contain at least five links. Watt steam engine invented Allowed faster boat travel ○ More incentive for colonization of africa to harvest resources Wanted to speed up resource production Kingleopold allowed for poor treatment of ppl in africa to force them to work harder and faster ○ Belgians find out about treatment of ppl from Congo Belgian ppl buy Congo Free State from King Leopold Benedict Anderson(political scientist) A nation is an “imagined community,” and it is imagined to be both “inherently limited and sovereign” ○ Imagined ○ Limited ○ Sovereign  ○ Community Paradox: ○ Nations are supposed to be unique, singular ○ But rise of nationalism was an international process Ppl around the world came to believe that everyone belonged to a nation ○ A national: Anthem Flag Culture Language The US national anthem: Star Spangled Banner - 1814 National flags are codified in 19th century Building nation-states also meant building nations and eliminating diversity During French Rev(1789), only 10% of FRA’s pop spoke French ○ By WWI, 80% of pop spoke french Globalization John Maynard Keynes(1883-1946) ○ Very famous brit economist What was globalized according to JMK ○ Commerce ○ Information Globalization: the various processes that integrate the world ○ Empire Empire as Globalizer What do empires do, go abroad and take over territory?, move commodities around the world Around the World in 80 Days - go to egypt, india, hong kong - all brit empire territory ○ Technology Tech also smt driving empires and globalization Technology as globalizer Communications revolution ○ Communication is especially in this era encapsulates and entails transportation, bc how does stuff move around esp before telegraph, is through ships Early 19th century was still the age of sail By 1840s: the emergence of steam-powered ocean-liners ○ Not just for war ○ Also just for getting ppl and goods all around the world ○ Shortened the transatlantic trip to 6-9 days  Around the world in 80 days connections ○ PF and JP take streamliners + trains, old travel forms more inconsistent ○ Steam powered transport ran on precise schedules ○ Phileas Fogg: “The unforeseen does not exact.” - exist? Long distance communication in early 19th century Horseback, walking, carrier pigeons In 1830s a belgian news agency would deliver news by pigeons to paris by noon and to London by 3pm In 1846, Antwerp had 25k homing pigeons First telegraph wires laid over land in 1840s-1850s ○ Influence on rise of nations Integrated countries, helping create conditions for national identity Internat communication v v slow In 1852, number of days to send letter from London to: ○ NY - 12 ○ Bombay - 33 ○ Calcutta - 44 ○ Shanghai - 57 ○ Australia - 73 Telegraphy reduces communication to hours The laying of the cable in 1858 is a huge deal ○ The first cable to be laid across the atlantic ○ NYC City Hall hosts a celebration: fireworks, ppl danced “Telegraph Polka” ○ First telegram sent across the cable is pres of US(James Buchanan) to Queen(Victoria) in Brit British dominated internat telegraphy ○ Global governance Three globalizers 1. Empire ○ Empires are expanding, take more territories, while doing that they are integrating the colonies into a single empire 2. Technology 3. Intergovernmental organizations ○ Organizations whose membership includes governments ○ We have international INGOs -international NON governmental organizations Intergovernmental Organizations as Globalizers  Eg. UN Problem: global processes take place in diff. Jurisdictions Sending mail to another country was extremely confusing ○ Postage was expensive ○ Each state used a different weight and currency ○ And the charges depended on the…transit?... Example: to send mail from the US to AUS in the 1850s could cost, depending on the route (cents)5,35,45,60 cents per letter or $1.02 per half ounce Answer: intergovernmental organizations ○ In 1874, statesmen from the US and Europe established the Universal Postal Union Created a single unified territory that connected all member-states Standardized rates, payment system, and stamps ○ More IGOs The International Telegraph Union(1865) Detective fix sending telegraphs back to london to get the warrant From 1815 to 1914 ○ The number of nation states doubled ○ The number of IGOs went from single digits to around fifty September 26, 2024 What is internationalism? The world was increasingly globalized ○ In response to this new condition, people, organizations, and governments, and from far-flung places began to organize international political projects A german socialist named august Bebel(prof said DONT need to memorize his name) in 1876 ○ “The family forms a tribe, and several tribes form a state and the nation and finally the close interaction of nations will result in internationality.” Governments did this through intergovernmental organizations Dont need to memorize this, its more for understanding ○ The international women’s movement Int Council of Women Int Alliance of Women Women’s Inter League for Peace and Freedom ○ International Red Cross society ○ International Eugenics movement Internat society for Racial Hygiene  So many international NGOs were founded that two Belgians set up the Central OFfice of Internat Associations in 1907 The central office studied and catalogued all INGOs The spread of internat organizations caused a problem: What lang were they supposed to speak? This became known as the Internat Language Question The book industry and newspapers spread vernacular languages (eg German, French, etc) rather religious languages (eg Latin) In Europe the lingua franca used to be Latin ○ Then starting in the 18th century, it shifted to FRA, especially as a diplomatic lang Even when FRA lost the Napoleonic Wars, the lang of the COngress of Vienna was French ○ German became the lang of socialism and of science in the 19th century But there is a problem with adopting a language like GER or FRA: ○ It is attached to a nation-state ○ …? The answer: A constructed language ○ Esperanto Comes from the Russian Empire Rus Empire ○ Expanded contiguously Expanding quite a bit in 18 to 19 century, but expanded in a way that is quite dif to british empire ○ Very diverse Multilingual Multiconfessional Multiethnic L.L. Zamenhof(1869-1917) ○ Living in RUS empire in Pol ○ Grew up in a Jew family in POL an outpost of RUS empire ○ Experienced and witnessed lots of antisemitism ○ In 1880s things got worse, anti semitic pogroms occur throughout RUS empire International Language: An Introduction and Full Textbook for Russians (1887) by “Doctor Esperanto” (Doctor Hopeful) ○ Sees linguistic diversity as a cause of conflict btwn ppl Ease of language ○ 16 unbending grammar rules ○ Started with 900 root words ○ Base roots were almost infinitely elastic  Transformative affixes Zamenhof: ○ “...” By early 1888, the primer had been published in Polish, French, German, English ○ The russ edition of the book went into its second printing w/i 6 months ○ By 189- there were editions in Hebrew, yiddish, swedish, lithuanian, danish, bulgarian, italian, spanish, czech Building a social network: ○ The promissory notes in the text: “I the undersigned, promise to learn the proposed language of Doctor Esperanto if it will be????? On the back of the notes, the signatories wrote their names and addresses Once completed the promises were to be sent via post to doctor esperanto, care of l. Zamenhof of warsaw Extra coupons were to be shared with “friends and acquaintances” so that they too could make that pledge In August 1905, the First World Esperanto COngress convened, in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France Zamenhof traveled from Warsaw to speak to the 688 attendees who hailed from as many as twenty countries nearly all of them European In 1891, Esperantists adopted an anthem 1905, Congress adopted a flag ○ Compare with national flags The interstate system was still the structure WWI stopped that year's World Congress of Esperantists in Paris from taking place In the 1930s, Nazis in Ger and ? in SU going to target Esperantists October 1, 2024 Ottoman empire, China, Japan ○ Arguably most powerful polities in Asia ○ None were formally colonized by the ? Pre 19th century, China a serious power ○ China restricted foreign trade to Canton, beginning in 1757 ○ The GDiv on display during the first Opium War (1839-42) Treaty of Nanking(1842) ○ 1. C to pay for losses and damages ○ 2. Opened up C to “free trade”(opium imports) ○ 3. Brit subjects in C to live under B’s laws not C’s ○ 4. Hong Kong ceded to Brit Free trade: opium imports into china - spike esp btw 1800-1850 onwards Chinese sovereignty picked apart  Treaty ports = port cities where C have no sovereignty Treaty of Nanking establish 5 “Unequal treaties” with Brit, Fra, US, and Jap increased number to 80 The Ottoman Empire ○ Staggeringly large ○ Pre 19th century extensive empire w territory across Africa, Eur, and Middle East ○ Reason Vasco de Gama, Por explorer had to take long way to Asia ○ Ott E experience military defeats in Eur: notably the Greek war of Independence(1821-29) Japan ○ Beginning in 17th century, Jap maintained policy of Sakoku (“locked country”) ○ Strong anti-foreigner sentiment in jap in early ? century ○ Only euro trade permitted at a dutch factory(entrepot) at Dejima, an island off Nagasaki ○ Dutch science, medicine, etc. begins to enter Japan Beginning in 17th century, Tokugawa Japan was a Confucius feudal society ruled by the samurai class The Perry Expeditions(1853,1854): the US send warships to forcibly open up J to the world ○ Equipped w modern weapons and gadgets to show off: A steam engine, telegraph, clocks, modern cannons ○ Matthew Perry threatens to send troops unless J established diplomatic and trade relations ○ J agrees to all of Perry’s demands Fukuzawa Yukichi, born into a low ranking samurai fam, describes the Jap encounter w the West in An Outline of a Theory of Civilization(1875) ○ “A blazing brand has suddenly been thrust into ice-cold water.” Asia responds to the Great DIv ○ 1. The West’s show of force over the Ott Empire, China, Japan ○ 2. How these polities reckoned w Western domination Asian intellectuals and statesmen start to notice that Eur and the US look diff than Asia They look for explanation bc ○ Their own survival depended on it ○ They want to imitate Eur Japan ○ Fukuzawa Yukichi In 1854, just after Perry expedition, his fam sent him away to study Western military tech Goes to Nagasaki for school(remember: the dutch factory was there) Embarks on Dutch studies, learns the Dutch language…?  In 1859, he travels to one of the ports in central Japan recently opened up to American and European merchants Tries to talk with the merchants ?none of them speak dutch? - they don't speak dutch, they speak english The language of civilization was now English Switches to English studies Travels as a member of the first diplomatic mission to the US in 1859 Publishes the first J-Eng dictionary Develops theory of “civilization” that puts world into a hierarchy: “quote on slides” His goal is for J to modernize, J should modernize so that it can be a member to of the Europe-dominated internat community ○ Tokugawa Japan was a Confucius feudal society ruled by the samurai class Emperor is restored to throne in 1868(known as the Meiji Restoration) Going to be a figurehead Meiji= “enlightened rule” Meiji reforms(1868-1912) Modernized military Centralizes gov Establishes a national dialect Establishes western-style schools that taught reading, writing, math Pursues industrial rev The Ottoman Empire ○ Ott empire was an Islamic caliphate ○ The sultan(head of the empire) was a caliph ○ A reformist official in the Ott Empire: “Islam was for centuries, in its setting, a marvelous instrument of progress. Today it is a clock which has lost time and which must be made to …”? ○ Sultan Abdulemjid I launches Tanzimat reforms Tanzimat = “reorganization” ?? period lasts from …? Tanzimat reforms Modernizes military Centralizes gov Creates a parliament Adopts an Ottoman national anthem and flag Promote West style schools ○ Switches from turban to fez, pre tanzimat reforms the size of your turban related to place in society, sultan had biggest turban ○ Fez looks more European, and everyone wears the same hat  China ○ Ppl in china going to respond in similar ways, idea that need ot catch up ○ Feng Guifen(1809-1874) ?? Translation is a really significant part of this Feng G in essay “On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons”(1861) - “quote” ○ The Self-strengthening Movement(or Westernization Movement)(1861-95) Modernizes the military Hires European military officers to teach in new military academy Imports new machinery and weaponry from the west to study Results? ○ Ottoman Empire becomes “the sick man of Europe” in the late 19th century Ott empire going to continue to learn provinces that are going to push away from O empire and try to join europe ○ China's century of humiliation will continue ○ J will come closest to establishing equality with Europe Set up a centralized state and a very large effective military, but going to be barrier to becoming part of the west - racism October 3, 2024 When did racism begin? ○ Invented and spread in late 18 century ○ Pre-modern societies displayed ethnocentrism, religious intolerance, xenophobia, etc. ○ Abt 12.5 mill African slaves transported to Americas btw 17-19 century Slavery not typically justified on racial grounds before end of 18 century In premodern world, fixed hierarchy was norm before late 18 century ○ King, lord, peasant, etc. Why did slavery emerge in late 18 cent ○ The age of revolutions(late 18-early 19 cent) American rev French rev Haitian rev Age of revs ○ Spread of ideas of equality and rights ○ F’s “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen”(1789) “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights” Tenets of scientific racism: ○ 1) There are distinct biological races ○ 2) each race has diff physical, moral, and intellectual traits  ○ 3) hierarchy of races(lower/higher races, backwards/advanced races) ○ 4) this can be proven…with science 19 cent anthropology ○ Usually physical anthro ○ Craniometry: measuring of skills Idea advanced races had bigger brains, smarter, bc bigger skulls Some ppl thought the races completely diff, like as if diff species, which meant no possibility of changing those diffs Quote More common 19 cent racism ○ There are racial diffs but through long process of civilization, can change those diffs Japan ○ Sees all other great powers have colonies ○ Fukuzawa Yukichi 1885 writes “leave Asia, enter Europe” He's talking abt imperial expansion Korea and China are not going to survive expansion of west “We do not have to wait for the enlightenment of our neighbors so that we can work together toward the development of Asia” ○ 1. Jap forces Kor to sign unequal treaty in 1876 and then annexes it in 1910 ○ Annexes Taiwan in 1895 ○ Japan does everything ga great white power does ○ Fukuzawa Yukichi: “leave Asia, enter Europe”... ○ J defeats a white great power in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 The news spreads ○ Future founder of India Jawaharlal Nehru remembered his excitement reading the papers: “J’s victory lessened the feeling of inferiority from which most od us suffered. A great Euro power had been defeated, thus Asia could still defeat Europe as it had done in the past.” ○ newborn babies in India were named after J admirals ○ Future “father” of Republican China, Sun Yat-sen excitedly heard the news in London ○ When he traveled through the Suez Canal…? Ppl from around the world who had been subjugated by the West drew the same lesson from J’s victory ○ 1. White men, conquerors of the world, were no longer invincible ○ 2. Euro empires cannot justify imperialism on racial superiority White ppl too saw significance of J victory Lothrop Stoddard’s 1920 very racist book interpreted the J victory…?  But there were limits to J joining club of great powers Japanese ppl werent treated the same way as other imperial citizens But japan was not afforded this Can and US limited J immigration ? ? Van’s anti-Asiatic riot in 1907 destroys Chinatown and Japantown Gandhi(1869-1948) ○ Identified as a Brit subject, believed in a civilizational hierarchy ○ Moved to London and trained to be a lawyer (1888-1891) ○ Went back to india, was a failed lawyer ○ Until he found work involving an Indian family of merchants w business interests in S Afr ○ Lived there from 1893 to 1915 ○ ?? Brit began taking colonies in South Africa in early 19 century Most of settlers were Boers, whose ancestors (Ger, Dutch, and Fr) settled there beginning in 17 cent ○ Spoke Afrikaans ○ ? ○ ? ? ? Lots of indians too, especially in Transval and Natal: indentured servants, merchants, and “time-expired” Indians ○ Indentured servant will pay back by working for a certain number of years? ○ Time expired - indentured servants who didn't go back to india Gandhi arrives in Natal in 1892 ○ Immediately experiences racial discrimination ○ 2 wks after arrival thrown out of 1st class train compartment(even tho bought a ticket) bc white passenger complain to share carriage w a “coolie” In 1894, Gandhi sends an open letter to the Natal parliament: ○ Quote Racism in Natal ○ Everyday racism ○ Restrictions on Indian immigration and Indian rights Gandhi - this is not right ○ We are brit subjects, focus effort on advocating for Indians ○ Founds the Natal Indian Congress in 1894  Going to be concerned w protecting indian merchants, property owning indians Still identifies as brit subject, so G volunteered as stretcher bearer for Indian Ambulance Corps for the brit empire during the 1900 Boer War, inspires 1100 indians to join ambulance corps But things don't change for Indians in S Afr G became disillusioned w the empire Return to India in 1915 and become an opponent of empire In 1921 he gave up modern clothes October 8, 2024 The Logic of Globalization Norman Angeli and his ??theory???...?? Norman Angeli ○ Wrote The Great Illusion ○ ? The Great Illusion ○ First published as a pamphlet in 1909 ○ Argument: the global integration of finance, trade, and communication disincentivize war and conquest Idea countries trading w one another, growing interdependence The idea that countries were trading with each other, pooling their resources and therefore becoming interdependent on each other; thus, it wouldn’t be beneficial for them to go to war with nations that they relied on for resources ○ “The warlike nations do not …? ○ Globalization, not conquest, pays ○ “Global integration has “quote” ○ Regardless, this new condition had consequences: 1. A general European war less likely 2. And, if it did occur, much shorter The logic of globalization Empires did apply this logic: tacit agreement that it wasn’t worth it to go to war over imperial interests ○ Berlin Conference(1884-85) Otto Von Bismarck feared inter-imperial conflict Similarly, empires worked together to carve out extraterritorial treaty-ports in China But the logic of empire persists?persisted? Naval Arms Race Alfred Mahan’s theory of sea-power  Alfred Mahan, American naval theorist, published The Influence of Sea Power Upon History in 1890 Argument: national power was based on command of the sea in both peacetime and war Idea that also patrol the waters during peacetime to make sure that internat trade could happen British navy ○ Brit hegemony was tied to its dominance of the oceans ○ Royal navy was the largest in the world ○ Its two-power standard: Brit navy was supposed to be as big as the 2 next largest navies combined? The empire on which the sun never sets - ppl referred to brit empire as this bc it had colonies in pretty much every time zone British Navy’s two power standard ○ ?? Germany ○ A late bloomer as both a nation-state and as an empire: both founded in 1871 Arrived late to world of empires in 1871 bc by then a lot of empires had already gotten a lot of territory ○ Was a common lang and a ger identity but didnt actually form a state until 1871 ○ In 1890s, Ger launched its weltpolitik (“World Policy”) More aggressive Sought to challenge other empires Consequences of rise of GER ○ 1. Upsets European balance of power ○ 2. Leads to European powers forming military alliances ○ 3. Naval arms race Alfred Tirpitz ○ Tirpitz as naval minister in 1897 ○ Obsessed with Mahan: without a strong navy, doesn’t think Ger can be world power ○ Wants to deal with Germany’s geography problem Ger geo problem: the North Sea is Ger’s access to the world’s oceans - Brit patrols the North Sea ○ Wants to challenge Brit dominance of the seas ○ Successfully lobbies Ger gov to fund vast build-up of Navy Battleships Cruisers Personnel ○ But you know what happens next: Brit expands its navy, constructing new, more lethal ships, such as the Dreadnought  Naval arms race Anglo-German Naval Race motivated all imperial powers to build up navies, armies, and overall capacities for violence The ger and the brit were diff kinds of powers, gers had aspirations of being a world power, but at the time were more of a regional power then will have a handful of colonies in africa, asia. Decline of the Ottoman Empire Pre-1914 tacit agreement amongst empires: it wasn’t worth it to go to war over imperial interests outside of Europe But then a problem emerges from within Europe: the decline of the Ottoman Empire? Sultan Abdulmejid I launches Tanzimat reforms in 1839 ○ The Ottoman version of the self-strengthening movement ○ Has some success ○ But doesn’t ever catch up ? Background to Balkan Wars(1811-1913) ○ Ottoman empire losing territory in late 19th century ○ Bosnia was a weird territory: Territory of the Ottoman Empire But since 1878 was occupied and administered by Austro-Hungary ○ Serbia, since 1878, was recognized as an independent principality ○ Austro-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1909 Balkan Wars(1911-13) ○ A coalition of Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria expelled the Ottoman Empire from Europe ○ This didn’t settle the region: the Balkan states immediately fought each other over the liberated territory Story of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand ○ Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and wife Sophie travel to Sarajevo ○ While they're there, a team of osnian assassins, assisted by Serbian secret nationalist society Black Hand,B organize assassination ○ They wanted to free Bosnia and Herzegovina of A-H rule and establish a Yugoslav state Political violence was very common: ○ 11 large-scale bombings in Eur in 1890s(including in the Fre National Assembly) ○ Assassinations Fre president in 1894 Span PM in 1897 ? ?  ? But this was different ○ It was the spark that caught fire The July Crisis of 1914 ○ Austria demands that the Serbs accept Austrian supervision over their internal security (as an amends for hosting the assassin) ○ ? ○ ? October 10, 2024 Recap: Origins of War ○ 1. Anglo-German rivalry ○ 2. Alliance System ○ 3. Decline of Ottoman Empire 1.Anglo-German rivalry The Brit empire, the most powerful polity on the planet ○ The Empire on which the sun never sets ○ Dominated trade, international telegraphy ○ Royal Navy ruled the waves Brit hegemony tied to its dominance of oceans The two-power standard brit?Wants peace wants internaitonal ? to remain stable, but Ger wants power? Ger arrives late, wants to challenge Britain Ger going to establish a very large navy ○ Establishes naval arms race btw Ger and Britain ○ ??? ○ ? ○ ? Ger going to pursue an empire, acquires a paltry empire Ger interested in change in revising this internat order 2. Alliance System Alliance system of pre ww1 era - diagram on slides Triple Alliance - GER, ITA, A-H Triple Entente - RUS, FRA, Brit 3. Decline of the Ottoman Empire By end of 19th century, OE becomes “the sick man of Europe” ○ One reason is bc other empires keep taking bits of OH’s territory ○ Taking bits bc know OE is weaker, and more territory they take the weaker it gets The Scramble for Africa ○ Includes north africa ○ OE loses North Africa to Euro empires  Tunisia - FRA 1881 Egypt - Brit 1882 Libya - ITA 1912 ○ Nationalist movements in Euro side of OE(bc OE had territory in Eur, in the balkans) Serbia Greece Bulgaria ○ Opens up vacuum in Eur ○ A-H empire expands ○ Rus empire wants to expand and it sees itself as a protector over the orthodox Christian Slavic populations in the Balkans Pan-Slavism - some cultural solidarity and unity among slavic ppl from the RUS empire all the way to the Balkans Serbia stuck in middle btw RUS, A-H, and OE The July crisis of 1914 ○ The assassination of Franz Ferdinand and sets off the Entente and Central Powers ○ The entente and central powers all going to start mobilizing for war,not going to start wat but going to start mobilizing for war WWI(or the Great War) What does WWI mean today? The meaning of the Great War today ○ Remembrance Day ceremonies ○ A battle between democracy and authoritarianism Democratic Brit vs Authoritarian GER ○ In Brit voting was still based on property qualifications 2 in 3 males had right to vote ○ In GER, all males older than 25 had the right to vote The Cousins’ War ○ Czar Nicholas II of Russia ○ King George V of Britain ○ ?? The Great War 1. Going to war 2. Colonial troops 3. Globalization Start of War, July 28, 2914 ○ Fighting btw Serbian nationalists and A-H ○ GER goes on offensive against FRA ○ Many imagined a short war  Germany makes some territorial gains against FRA and Belg..? But then that’s it. Trench warfare ○ ? of war where things aren’t changing, war of attrition Chemical warfare ○ Poison gas, such as mustard gas, used for the first time in 1915 ○ British officer witnessing it quote Unprecedented in scale ○ More than 70 million men worldwide fought in the war ○ Over half of the men sent to the front were killed, injured, taken prisoner, or were simply never accounted for. ○ For reference, that is about the entire population of Canada The Great War involved most countries, and battles took place in: ○ Middle East ○ Africa ○ Asia ○ Europe Taboo against using non-white troops to fight white Europeans ○ Non white troops fighting white europeans not a thing that had been done before ○ The Brit did not let Indians fight in the Boer War of 1899-1902 ○ To have non-white ppl fight and kill white ppl would reduce the status of whites in the eyes of colonial subjects, would challenge white supremacy ○ Brit recruit up to 1.4 mill Indian soldiers ○ FRA recruit nearly 500k troops from its colonies in Africa and INdochina ○ Brit and FRA hire 140 k…? The Daily Mail (in London) worries about white women coming into contact with natives who are worse than brutes when their passions are arised” The horrors of total war The experience of colonial troops shatters the image of European superiority ○ Came from diff parts of the world arriving to Eur had been taught abt euro superiority but seeing barbarism, seeing use of poison gas, etc. ○ Shattered view of euro superiority in two ways Fighting alongside whites as equals Hated conditions, brutality, atrocity, barbarianism of the war ○ A Brit historian in 1960s: “Britain was removed from the Victorian pedestal she had occupied so long. Village India saw Eur in its sordid wartime clothes and was not impressed witty? what it saw in us” Globalization can become a weapon in modern warfare ○ Brit commanded the infrastructure of globalization Financial services  Ocean-going merchant shipping Trans-oceanic communications And global naval power Brit command of telegraphy ○ Pre wwi, US cable traffic to Eur and South America went…? Britain aims to isolate Ger from the world ○ Cuts all of Ger underwater telegraph cables ○ Imposes blockade October 17, 2024 All Quiet on the Western Front ○ Film is based on semi-autobiographical book by Erich Maria Remarque British commanded the infrastructure of globalization ○ ???? ○ ? ○ ? ○ ? Brit command of telegraphy ○ Pre wwi, US cable traffic to Eur and South America went through Canada, Newfoundland, and ??? Brit aims to isolate Ger from the world ○ Cuts all of Ger underwater telegraph cables Zimmermann cable (Jan 1917) ○ After Brit snipped all of Ger’s cables, Ger sent the message via radio to Ger embassy in Stockholm, and then from Stockholm to Buenos Aires via Brit cables, before relaying it to Mexico via American cables Britain aims to isolate Germany from the world ○ Imposes blockade Pre war ○ ⅓ of Ger food supply from abroad ○ Most of its fertilizer from abroad Brit uses its naval prowess to blockade Britain (map of one map patrolling the waters around Britain) End of the war ○ Triple entente wins the war ○ Final collapse of four empires Ottoman A-H Ger Rus Key Q  ○ ? Socialism before 1917 Under feudalism, peasants but no working class(proletariat) IR created one ○ Agriculture required fewer ppl ○ Rise of factory system of manufacturing ○ Rise of wage labor Working conditions in factories and coal mines were dangerous Living conditions in cities very poor Working class began to organize into national trade unions Some start to organize internationally Karl Marx(1818-1883) co writes the Communist Manifesto in 1848 ○ Quote abt society as a whole splitting into 2 hostile camps, 2 great classes dancing each other, bourgeoisie and proletariat ○ Society was organized into the working class and capitalist class ○ “Workers of the world, unite!” Rise of socialist internationalism in the 19th century ○ International workingmen’s association founded in London (1864-1876) ○ The Second International, founded in 1889 Socialist internationalism ○ Understood the struggle to be international Why didn’t the workers of the world unite? ○ Nationalism Bc workers are going to largely remain within the sort of national framework, workers by and large still tended to see selves as belonging to nation, instead of having class consciousness, they had national consciousness, The socialist hope: ○ If war broke out between the imperialist competitors, workers would refuse to fight ○ But the opposite happened ○ The Second International shuts down in 1916 The second internat, the socialist internat? The Bolshevik Revolution Karl Marx ○ Understood human history in terms of stages ○ Feudalism→capitalism→socialism The socialist revolution would occur in Britain first. Why? ○ NOT Russia Russia, for him, was seen as “backwards”  ○ Serfdom only abolished in 1861 ○ Didn’t industrialize until 1890s Russian Empire headed by an autocratic monarch, Tsar Nicholas II Rus a member of Triple Entente and an ally of Slavic nation-states, joins war Vladimir Lenin ○ In January 1917, Lenin lamented that he did not expect to see the Rus Rev in his lifetime Rus army does very poorly ○ By 1915 Rus loses lots of its western provinces ○ By end of war 2.5 mill Rus POWs in Ger hand and almost 2 mill military casualties Meanwhile, back on the home front ○ Not enough food As of 1917, the army had conscripted 15 mill men, mostly peasants Not a good idea in an agrarian economy A secret police report in Jan 1917: “Children are starving in the most literal sense of the word. A revolution, if it takes place will be spontaneous, quite likely a hunger riot.” Popular discontent in the winter of 1916-1917 St petersburg to petrograd - bc original name sounded too German Public doesn’t like tsar rn, general discontent Spreads to army In march 1917, soldiers in Petrograd mutiny and join protestors Tsarist Rus had lost its legitimacy Tsar Nicholas II abdicates the throne Tries to give his brother the throne - but that doesn't work out Mutinies and desertions occur in other national armies ○ Deterring in All Quiet on the Western Front ○ And protests and strikes occur in other countries But only in Rus does the discontent in military and among civilians combine Russian poster from 1917 depicting peasant, soldier, worker ○ Caption “Together for the Common Cause” Shows solidarity btw diff groups Lenin still in switzerland Ger’s secret weapon: Lenin Ger strategically allowed Lenin and other socialists to take a train across Ger territory to get Rus to foment rev His message to the ppl: Bread!Land!Peace! ○ Serious lack of food - bread ○ Large peasant population - land  ○ Atp ppl of rus did not want to fight the war, war illegitimate, not worth fighting - peace Lenin and the Bolsheviks seize Petrograd and topple the Rus gov in Nov 1917 ○ Begin organizing society around socialism ○ Land given to peasants The day after the revolution: follow up on their promise of peace Sign the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with the Triple Alliance in december 1917 ○ Lost Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, its Baltic Provinces, and some of the Caucasus provinces ○ This amounted to a third of its ? population?? The entente powers are pissed off ○ Short term: the central powers could now focus on the western front ○ Long term: a socialist state was a political threat to the liberal, capitalist world order The entente powers send troops to Rus to overthrow the “Reds”(bolsheviks) and install the “Whites” (anti-Bolsheviks) from 1918-1920 ○ Japan: 70,000 soldiers ○ US: 8,700 ○ Canada: 4,192 October 22, 2024 US Intervention in the Great War Woodrow Wilson: US President (1913-1921) ○ Born in Virginia in 1856 ○ PhD in Political Science from John Hopkins ○ Campaign slogan in 1916: “He kept us out of war” ○ Campaign slogan in 1916: “He kept us out of war” ○ Theory of the war” it was caused by a dysfunctional European system ○ Saw the war as an opportunity for the US to establish a new international order Despite this, the US joins the war on th side of the Entente ○ Zimmerman telegram Both Entente and Central Power were exhausted by 1917 ○ American international was a lifesaver of the entente Just as Rus changed the name of St. Petersburg to Petrograd ○ Sauerkraut→ Liberty Cabbage ○ German Measles→Liberty Measles US doesn’t want territory, what US, what Wood Wil wants is for world order to be rearranged so wars like this wouldn't happen again The bolsheviks take power (nov 1917) and call for right of self-determination for all nations Wood WIl fears that wars and comm revs will recur unless the Internat order changes  ○ Develops “Wilsonianism” 1. Trade 2. Peace 3. Nation-states Wilson’s 14 points, Jan 1918 ○ Trade Open seas Free trade ○ Peace Some sort of disarmament League of Nations ○ Nations Series of specific demands for the territorial readjustment o fEuro borders ○ Doesn’t use the exact words self-determination but u can kinda see it ○ “A free, open minded and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims” that gives “equal weight: to the colonial governments and the colonized peoples ○ Next month, W elaborates “National aspirations must be respected; people may now be dominated and governed only by their own consent. ‘Self determination’ is not a mere phrase it is imperative..? ○ Thinking of multi ethnic empires: eg Ottoman E, the A-H E ○ A disjuncture btw identity and borders, W thought would be a constant cause of violence ○ Ppl in the colonized and semi-colonized(semi-colonized refers to china)world think he is talking abt them ○ Students chanting long live p ww? Paris Peace Conference Par Pe cobnf 1919 - an opportunity to rethink empire? Wilson arrive in Paris in 1919, greeted w crowds DuBois: “He was at that moment without doubt the foremost figure in the world” Indian nationalists send Gandhi to Paris ○ Gandhi had returned to India in 1915 and joined Indian National Congress ○ Urged moderation and gradualism S’ad Zaghlul, leader of the Egyptian Wafd party, practices Eng so he can communicate w Wilson W.E.B. Du Bois travels to Paris and organizes Pan-African Conf Nguyen? WEB Du BOis on WIlson ○ “At Verailles he did not seem…? Back to Wilson’s racial worldview  ○ Woodrow Wilson, born in antebellum Virginia, born before civil war, grew up in south where economy centered around slavery ○ WW’s A History of the American People(1902) the South after the Civil War was a “conquered province” Reviewers: a tad KKK-heavy D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of A Nation(1915) WW quote? KKK formed after civil war in that mythology(of black ppl being put above whites?) Wilson screens The Birth of a Nation(1915) at the White House ○ The Birth of a Nation; The Fiery Cross of the KKK??? ○ wilson “It teaches history by lightning” Wilson is a big racist Brit empire blocks Gandhi from attending conf The Brit arrest S’ad Zaghlul and his colleagues and exile them to malta Brit empire rlly dont want these colonial figures in paris, sp [revents these ppl from getting to paris WEB Du Bos isnt granted a meeting w Wilson Nguyen the Patriot, from Indochina, working in Fra as a kitchen assistant, rents a suit to meet with Wilson— ○ Cant fet to the pres Paris P Treaties major achievement: empires in Euro broken apart, new nations formed→ for wilson, this is the foundation of new peace But also… 1. No challenge to victors’ empires 2. Losers’ colonies are redistributed to victors a. Victors gain territory in wwi b. e.g. Japan gets ger’s Shandong peninsula in China 3. W blocks a “racial equality” clause tha thte japanese seel to write into the covenant of the League of nations The COnsequences of 1919 1919 is going to be a world of pol movements and revolutions in colonized semi colonized worlds In china may fourth rev A year of revs: ○ May Fourth Movement, China, 1919 Protest the Chinese gov’s response to Japan keeping SHandong ○ Egyptian rev, 1919 Triggered by brits exiling of sa'd zaghlul Protest british rule over egypt  During 1919, a young egyptian recalls, as a 12 yr old, “exploding with enthusiasm” and delivering speeches in mosques Sayyid Qutb, leading anti-American Islamist thinker, chief inspiration for Osama bin Laden “A bunch of robbers bent on securing territories” - ??? ○ Mao Zedong, head of the People’s Republic fo China ,1949-? Gandhi before 1919 ○ Gandhi in 1920s: Rejects western culture and leads mass movement for Indian independence WEB Du Bois increasingly turns to black internationalism ○ African Americans should???????????? DU Bois dies in 1963 a Ghanaian citizen Nguyen the Patriot? ○ After getting snubbed, he came across Vladimir Lenin’s writings on colonialism and had an epiphany ○ Ho Chi Minh, president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam(1945-1969) The ParPeConf’s failure t oaccomodate the colonized and semi-colonized world pushed anti-colonialism towards more radical alternatives to liberalism ○ Communism ○ Political islam Wilsons words and the colonized/semi colonized world's response to them helped change the norms of IR The self determining nation state increasingly the only legitimate political form Self determination became and ordering principle for the international system October 24, 2024 Recap of last lecture: Wilsonian promise of self-determination Colonized and semi-colonized ppl channel their politics into self-determination Their hopes to talk to Wilson are frustrated For many of them. 1919 becomes a radicalization moment But this movement helps make self-determination an ordering principle of the international system SELF-DETERMINATION: “the legal right of pp to decide their own destiny in the international order” Which means that: a ppl can freely choose to organize into a sovereign state or choose to remain within a larger polity Compare to colonial rule: one ppl rule over another ppl WWI: Graveyard of Empires  RIP: The Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and German Empire In Feb 1918, Wilson elaborates that: “national aspirations must be respected; ppl may now be dominated and governed by their own consent. ○ Thinking of multi-ethnic empires eg. Ottoman Empire, AH Empire ○ A dsijunture between ientity and borders ??? ○ ????? a ton of stuff from last lecture German colonial empire: eg German Southwest Africa, German East Africa, ?? Ottoman empire panned vast portions of the Middle East During the war, the British and the French are talking about what is going to happen to the fallen empires’ territories Condradictory promise #1: Hussein-McMahon correspondence, 1915 ○ British High Commisioner in Egypt (Henry McMahon) pormisedd Prince Hussein of Arabia an independent Condratictory promise #2: Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916 ○ Secret agreement btwen GB and Promise 3: Teh balfour declaration (1917) ○ British foreign secretary Arthur Balfour: Britain agrees to support the creation of a “national home” for the Jewish ppl in palestine Meanwhile, locals throughout the former Ottoman EMpire have their own ideas ○ Syrian national congress established in 1919 Blah blah blah League of Nations (founded 1920) Founded at Paris Peace Conference The first permanent, universal intergovernmental organization devoted to the maintenance of peace Headquartered in Geneva Example of governmental internationalism League of Nations: an organization of nation-states Map: class A most civilized to class B, least civilized (Middle East, Africa, South east asia) The mandate powers would civilize the places being mandated which would lead to their civilization Oct 29, 2024: Nationalism in Palestine Paper due Nov 27 1. Zionism 2. Palestinian nationalism 3. The creation of Israel Zionism  James Gelvin: “Zionism is a nationalist movement that redefined a religious community - Jews as a national community” and “asserts the right of this nation to an independent existence in its historic ?? Antisemitism in Europe Antisemitism in Europe dates back to 13th-14th centuries ○ Emphasized religious or cultural differences Vut life for Jewish ppl improved in 19th century Europe ○ Jewish ppl could increasingly assimilate into national cultures ○ ?? But then in 1880s, things got worse ○ Antisemitism was increasingly racialized, seeing Jews as racially different than other Europeans ○ The emergence of “the Jewish Question” Rlly common for ppl to refer to problems as ‘questions’ What a particular country should do about its domestic Jewish pop. bc they were diff and couldn’t fit in L.L Zamenhhoz experiences and witnessed lots of antisemitism in Poland ○ Russians, Poles, and Germans would spit on and abuse Jews ○ ?? Age of Nationalism The emergence of nationalism in the 19th century ○ The idea that the world was divided into separate nations with their own history, traditions, language ○ And that each nation should have its own state Theodor Hertzl (1860-1904) ○ A journalist who grew up in Vienna, part of the A-H empire ○ Had been a proponent of assimilation ○ But in mid 1890s, changed his mind -No longer believed in assimilation If Jewish ppl in Europe were able to assimilate, they would still face discrimination ○ Published a pamphlet titled “The Jewish State” in 1896 Hertzl’s solution to “the Jewish Question”: Jews constitute a nation and the need a state of their own Father of zionism Zionism is one form of nationalism Flag of Zion adopted in 1897 Language: Hebrew is a sacred language in Judaism, but it was not a spoken language ○ Zionists revived the language, helping the transformation of Jews from across the world into a single nation ○ Why didn’t they choose Yiddish, which is the vernacular of Jewish ppl  Something that made Zionism unique was its geography - jewish ppl lived across the world Zionists were scattered across teh world, especially Euope, so they had to choose where to make their homeland Zionism was therefore a settler-colonial project Where to found the state? Some of the possibilities were East Africa, Argentina, and the wetsren US Hertzl proposed palestine of Argentina ○ In Palestine “We should there form a portion of a rampart of Europe against Asia, an outpost of civilizations as opposed to barbarism.” ○ In the end chose Palestine PLAN: ○ Strategy #1: get international powers tos support the project ○ Britisg foreuiyn secretary Arthur Balfour: Britain agrees to support the creation of a anayional ○ Strategy #2: settle the land Zionist organziations organzized immigration to Palestine 1904-1923: 65,000 ○ A popular Zionist phrase during this time: “a land without a people for a people without a land” PALESTINIAN NATIONALISM But ofc there were ppl already living in palestine In 1921, the pop was 700,000 ○ 80% of these ppl were Arabic-speaking Muslims How did the inhabitants of Palestine identify? ○ Ottoman Empire was its own sort of nationalism ○ And then Arab nationalismthe also develop their own national interests, traditions, and identity Syriann NAtional Congess calls for creation of a greater Syrian state in 1919 Resolution: should be “no separation of the southern part of SYria, lnown as Palestine, or of the littoral Palestine??? A poster in Danascys in 1919: “The Arab nation is indivisible?? Teh region si dividen into mandates each mandate develops uts owne government, system, cities As they come statems the also develop their own national interests, traditions, and identity October 31, 2024 The League of Nations 1. Failure of the League  2. Success of the League 3. Decline of the League League of Nations - antecedent of UN Common idea: The League of Nations failed ○ What is meant by failure? If meant failure to prevent WWII → then yes But is this an appropriate measure of success and failure? Is this the only measure? We can look at LON through diff lens to see some more successful aspects of it Can look at its role in public health Intergovernmental organizations in 19th century ○ Tended to be technical, focused on 1 issue International Telegraph Union (1865) Universal Postal Union (1874) International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875) The League was founded in 1920 at the Paris Peace Conference ○ The first permanent, universal intergovernmental organization devoted to the maintenance of peace One aspect of this: collective security Meant if one member state were to be attacked, territory invaded, LON would respond, potentially militarily ○ Article X of League Covenant: member-states promise “to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League.” It doesn't say in the covenant every state must protect the country if attacked, but kind of legalistic? Fear pull world back into conflict?war? - prof speaking note Peace was a very broad concept ○ Disarmament ○ Human trafficking ○ Global health ○ Protection of minorities(in Europe) ○ Treatment of prisoners of war Main idea of the League: a mechanism through which states could come together, settle disputes peacefully, and cooperate on international issues Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland at the Palais Wilson ○ wilson legacy lived on in named building after him? Structure ○ The Assembly ○ The Council  Permanent members: Britain, France, Italy, and Japan Rotating members ○ The Secretariat First international civil service! League of Nations Health Organization Globalization in 19th century ○ New pathways(ships) for goods and people…and pathogens Outbreaks through 19th century bc of ships moving cargo or ppl Cartoon from US in 1858 ○ “The Quarantine Question” “Death, rising from the iron scow, and scattering pestilence among the people” Governments try to address this on an international level Sanitary Union Conferences establishes international rules for quarantine International Office of Public Hygiene (est. 1907) But it’s an unsystematic collection of data on a few diseases in a small set of countries Etymology of “quarantine” ○ A public health measure in 14th century Venice aimed at stopping the Black Death Ships were required to lay at anchor for 40(quaranta) days before landing Spanish Flu Pandemic(1918-1920) ○ What was it? Transmitted through droplets, hand, mouth, nose, transmission Started w mahogany spots on cheekbones, would spread…?lungs fill w fluid, death occurred within hours or days ○ Made worse by the war Like trench conditions, ppl from all over world being deployed then going home Killed 50-100 million ppl globally ○ Even hits a large social gathering in Paris The League of Nations Health Organisation established in 1920 Its function: Global public health Lots of women ended up working for this organization The LNHO built an epidemiological intelligence infrastructure ○ 1. Collected data from countries ○ 2. Collated the data ○ 3. Communicated the data ○ Would give this weekly picture of epidemics Problem w collected data ○ LNHO standardized health statistics  Problem with communicating ○ Different jurisdictions ○ Set up the LNHO Eastern Bureau in Singapore(British Empire), which would send reports to Saigon(French Empire) By the early 1930s, the LNHO’s network spanned forty-five countries and two-thirds of the world’s population. The Decline of the League Map Buy-in from great powers? ○ Initially this looked good League designed by great powers ○ But over time many great powers were conspicuously absent The US never joins the league The Soviet Union ○ Fear of Bolshevik Revolution big motivation for the founding of the League ○ Winston Churchill proposed that the League organize a “collective intervention by a composed force” to overthrow Soviet government. ○ USSR finally joins in 1932; kicked out in 1939 - bc ofinvasion of poland in WWII Japan ○ Founding member ○ Withdraws in 1933(after League reprimands Japan for its invasion of China in 1931 Italy ○ Founding member ○ Very active ○ After the League reprimands Italy for its invasion of ABysinnia…??? Germany ○ Central Powers(WWI) not allowed to join initially ○ Joins in 1925 ○ Hitler withdraws in 1933 Here's the story of how these rlly big powers not participating…???exiting organization?? LON health organizaiton ○ Even after Ger withdraws from organization, Nazi Germany continued to submit epidemiological bulletins ○ Nazis, fascist Ger, see LON as representing liberalism, an enemy of fascism Still submitting these bulletins, know the work they do is crucial, still respect it?, so still participating in this system LON is going to be in existence until? 1945??? ??? After war UN established Can see legacy of this health organization continuing  ○ THe LNHO personnel, knowledge, and infrastructure could be in the WHO(est 1948) ○ The first director of the Eastern Bureau later became the assistant director of the WHo ○ The WHO kept singapore as an epidemic intelligence station The Weekly Epidemiological Record ○ Similar/same title/practices form LON to WHO??? Nov 5 Lecture: American Growth Territory: Logic of empire: territory = power ○ For Europe, this usually means taking territory…? The US also takes overseas colonies, but this isn’t what makes it uniquely rich Settler colonialism ○ The US originally started just on the east coast ○ The US takes territory adjacent to it Forces Indigenous ppl from their land Helps white ppl settle in the new territories Turns territory into equal states within the union John Gast’s “American Porgress” (1872) ○ Depicts the white lady liberty leading white Americans’ westward expansion of the US, bringing civilization from the East Coast which is filled with railways and industrialized cities to the west, where the indigenou sppl are being driven out of Settler-colonial territorial expansion = vast internal market ○ Expand railways from teh east coast across the country in just three decades Immigration: US attracted the lion’s share of transatlantic immigrants in late 19th-early 20th century US pop. boom in comparison Industrialization: The US led the Second Industrial Rev. (1870-1914) ○ From fire burning candles > electric lighting ○ From horse drawn carriages > automobiles and trams ○ Elevators > skyscrapers ○ The telephone, phonograph, and movie film and motion picture camera radio ○ Invention of processed foods The emergence of consumer society ○ Changes the way Americans clothed themselves, ate, moved around, lived Also beginning to change the ways of other ppl too  ○ The American Invaders by F.A. McKenzie: Britain has become addicted to american stuff ○ US gets richer as its stuff is used around teh world Comparisons with France ○ The proportion of the US pop with access to The automobile invete by French and Germans from 18th-19th centuries ○ But the US would dominated the 20th century Henry Ford (1863-1947) ○ Born in a farmhouse in Michigan ○ Founded Ford Motor in 1903 ○ Coming of age in second Industrial Rev. Mass production before the automobile:textiles, bikes, etc River Rouge Plant in Michigan Three elements of Fordism ○ Flow production: teh idea that the product is moving through the assembly line ○ Mechanization: using havy machines to do the labour ○ Unskilled labour: using immigrants Before the Fordist method, a worker wa san artisan, a a general master of all trades tyoe of worker, and you got paid for this After fordist method invented, a worker specialized in one thing, work became extremely monotonous ○ Ford invented “The Five Dollar Day” (starting in 1914) Ford sought to Americanize his workers Fired 900 men for observing Eastern Orthodox Christmas ○ A Ford official said “if these men are to make their home in America, they should observe American holidays” In 1937, the world produced 6.3 million cars ○ The US produced 5.1 million of them The US wielded a different kind of political power: ○ Its economic blueprint threatened to change foreign societies from within “We can have no hope of improvemen until our farmers are Americanized” - November 7, 2024 At least three articles from each newspaper for the final paper The Paris Peace Conference ○ Attempting to create new internat order ○ Creates League of Nations ○ Also creates separate peace treaties w each of the Central Powers: Ger, A-H, etc. ○ Also negotiating on what to do abt the central powers? WWI cost a lot of blood and treasure ○ More than 35 mill soldiers killed, injured, taken prisoner, or never accounted for,  That is abt the entire population of Canada!!! ○ Plus the devastated land, infrastructure, etc. Who is going to pay for this? The bolsheviks(led by Lenin?) call for no indemnities Wilson asks for no reparations But the British and The French were seeking payment for damages Treaty of Versailles(treaty with Germany) ○ War Guilt clause Essentially assigns blame for the conflict on Ger The peace treaty with Ger ○ Ger gave up part of its Euro territory ○ Overseas colonies taken Ger colonies ended up mostly in hands of french and british but also other countries as well ○ Reparations - about $500 billion dollars today First democratically elected head of Ger after war resigns rather than signs the peace treaty ○ “Which hang would not shrivel, that shackled itself and us in such a way?”? John Maynard Keynes ○ Famous economist ○ Member of the Bloomsbury Group ○ Sent to Paris as a British delegate ○ Alarmed by the negotiations ○ Quits in 1919 months before the treaty is signed ○ Writes book called The Economic Consequences of the Peace(1920) Instant bestseller in US and Europe Translated into 12 languages within 6 months ○ Argument: the conference did not establish the economic foundations for peace ○ Economic problems of former Central Powers: war reparations ○ Economic problems of former Entente? Powers: war debts?? ○ THe US gov and banks provided loans to ENtente powers during war ○ So, after war, Italy, Belgium, France, and others owed more than $150 billion (in 2024 $) ○ Wilson felt hte US had sacrificed enough ○ Predictions: States would ruin selves trying to pay for debts Austerity (which means little reconstruction) Inflation ( which means devaluing currency) People would lose faith in the international order Blah blah blah idk  Hyperinflation in Ger In 1923, one US dollar equals 1 trillion german Marks Basically makes the currency worthless Ger fails to make reparation payments French and belgian troops occcupy the Ruhr region beginning in Jan 1923 ??? Veterans attempt a coup in Munich in Nov 1923 The Beer Hall Putsch, carried out by the Nazis and led by Adolph Hitler November 19, 2024 The Global Depression The ancien regime was supplanted by a new ideology and economic system in late 18th/early 19th century ○ Liberalism Liberalism: ○ an ideology that prioritizes: 1. Individ rights, including freedom of expression and property rights Liber: free 2. A democratic form of gov ○ Takes off during Age of Revs(late 18/early 19 century) ○ Liberalism influenced the self-strengthening movements During the Tanzimat reforms, the Ottoman empire creates a parliament Laissez-faire capitalism: An econ system in which the gov doesn’t intervene in the econ ○ No subsidies for industry ○ No welfare provisions for poor Invisible hand: The idea that the market is a self-organizing mechanism ○ Ppl follow their own interests, which ends up benefiting the econ as a whole Free trade ○ No tariffs or limits on imports Don't put a tariff on goods coming into the country ○ Briain implements free trade in 1840s The rise of liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism occurred during the expansion of the global economy (Pinker’s Graph, or the hockey stick of global prosperity) Karl Marx: “Capitalists have played a most revolutionary part” WWI shuts down international trade Picks up in 1920s The Roaring Twenties in the United States But then the Great Depression(GD) hits Causation in history ○ 1. Proximate cause ○ 2. Structural cause  Proximate cause of GD: A Wall Street crash in 1929 ○ A sell-off of stocks led to crash on Thurs, Oct 24 ○ Outside of the US, it’s often referred to as “Black Friday” ○ Wall Street crashes often–why was this one so much more painful? The structural causes ○ 1) war debts and reparations ○ 2) absence of framework for managing global econ ○ 3) diff govs initial responses Why did the entente want to make Ger pay reparations? ○ Brit ppl pushed for it: in first postwar election (dec 1918), “Hang the Kaiser” and “Make Germany Pay” were pop slogans US banks began to lend to Ger in 1920s, so that it could pay reparations After the Wall Street crash, US banks began to call back foreign loans… Which meant that GER could no longer pay its reparation payments Which meant FRA and Brit also struggled to pay its war debt to the US Keynes’ argument Govs responded with laissez-faire capitalism US gov response ○ Response was to shut down, limit internat trade - govs in general or US? Done through the Smoot-Hawley Act of 1930 ○ The Smoot Hawley Act of 1930 Avg tariff rate went up to 60% Other countries implemented retaliatory tariffs ○ Canada did in 1930 Free trade was a core part of Brit in 19th century Brit empire dropped free trade in 1932 ○ Implements “imperial preference” The Global Depression ○ Internat trade fell by 50% btw 1929 and 1932 Impact felt across the world Bread lines were common everywhere ○ Across diff countries Proliferation of Hoovervilles in the US Named after US president Herbert Hoover The GD was seen as a failure of liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism One is fascism ○ What is fascism? Extreme form of nationalism, committed to “cleansing” the nation of foreigners, minorities, and other “undesirables” Anti-democratic, anti-liberal, anti-communist???,?,?  ? ? ? ○ Fascism’s origins ??? ○ Fascist italy(1922-43) Led by benito mussolini ???? ○ In Ger, beer hall putsch in 1923 ○ But then nazi leadership arrested ○ In 1928 election, nazi party doesn’t do well ○ The GD in Ger ○ Nazi GER (1933-1945) Nazis ascend to power in 1933 through the ballot ○ Imperial Japan Ideologically very similar to fascism “Japanese militarism” Lacked a cult of personality No cult of personality same way as hitler and mussolini had ○ ITA, GER, and JAP all pursue autarky(economic self-sufficiency) and seek to expand their territory in the 1930s Another ideology: communism ○ This is why someone like JOhn Scott left the US for magnitogorsk November 26, 2024 What king of world has made passport possible ○ Internat system that Divides into nation-states Uphold border control as a foundation of sovereignty Global migration 1846-1940 - wave of global migration? Increase in migration driven by ○ Industrial Revolution ○ Transportation revolution ○ Communication revolution Around the world in eighty days ○ In egypt, Phileas Fogg goes to the Brit consul to get his passport visaed(stamped) ○ Consul: “veru good, sir. You know that a visa is useless, and that no passpor tis required?” ○ Fogg:????????????????????????????? This era of free movement didn’t apply to everyone Settler colonies ○ A territory invaded and occupied by colonizers  ○ Intention to replace existing society with that of colonizers ○ Settler colonies needed ppl. What can u say abt these ads to attract workers and residents, what kind of ppl are they aiming for, how are they depicting the land Able bodied young western european men Over time more interested in women and setting up families Interested in ppl who would be able to defend the country ○ Settler colonies want to keep out Indian and Chinese immigrants ○ Brits colonies in South Africa The Boers try to kick out an prevent Indians from entering Gandhi lived in South African colonies from 1893 to 1915 Took advantage of intraimperial movement ○ If indian could travel to other parts of brit empire bc brit subject ○ Brit immigration policy had to factor in the whole empire Had to come up with ways to keep indians out without directly saying ○ Natal implemented the “Natal” formula in 1897 English-language test Appeared on surface to be non-discriminatory ○ This satisfied the British gov ○ The policy spreads to diff settler colonies West australia South australia Tasmania New Zealand Eventually the australian federation ○ During WWI, Euro states implement strict border controls The British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act was passed in 1914 Defined citizenship and created a booklet form of the passport ○ Meant to be temporary? In 1919 brit made these provisions permanent The Paris Peace Conference channeled Wilsonian idea of a nation-state ○ Borders and identity were supposed to be the same thing ○ The nation-state was the most important political unit ○ And border control became a part of sovereignty But the war and related conflicts caused a lot of ppl to fall through the cracks and become stateless Russian Civil War(1917-23) ○ In 1921, the Bolsheviks denaturalized the 1.5 million Russians who fled ○ Russian emigres became stateless  ○ Which was a problem bc… Fridtjof Nansen, a scientist from Norway ○ Nansen, an explorer The first to explore the interior of Greenland In 1921, Nansen became the League of Nations High Commissioner for Russian Refugees ○ Organizes a certificate of identity That is facilitated by the LON Creates the Nansen Passport in 1922 Document allowed the holder to gain admittance to countries demanding proof of identity and to travel?? Document that allows ppl entry in lieu of a passport? A considerable success ○ By the end of the decade more than fifty govs would accept the Nansen Passport Nazi Germany (1933-1945) ○ What is fascism? Extreme form of nationalism, committed to “cleansing” the nation of foreigners, minorities, and other “undesirables” For nazis this was the Jew Anti-democratic, anti-liberal, anti-communist Glorification of violence Cult of personality December 3, 2024 Global Depression ended 1939, because World War II began which started up the war industry (producing weapons, machinery, uniforms) WWII seen as the “good war” - defeat Hitler, the Nazis, The popular narrative an sthe 1939-1945 periodization?? If we broaden the map, the role of imperialism becomes clearer WWII from the perspective of colonial spaces 1. British India Allows us to argue two things: 1. WWII was an imperial war 2. Different empires found way INDIA In Sept 1939, India declares war on Germany ○ Wasn’t an act Indians themselves wanted ○ The British viceroy declared war on their behalf 3+ million Indian men join the British Indian army Britain also requisitions food and other resources from India  The Bengal Famine of 1943 ○ Causes: British policy in Bengal: British authorities evacuate villages, confiscare food, and destroy Britain worried about Japan talking over Burma in 1942 and that they might try to take over Bengal ○ Kills around 3 million Indians ○ Churchill’s response to requests for aid: No! It’s their fault bc they “breed like rabbits” Quit India campaign, 1942-1945 ○ Gandhi and the Indian National Congress resist, call for independence before joining war ○ British response: arrest the Indian National Congress leadership ○ But Britain does give in to their demands: promises independence after the war Subhas Chandra Bose ○ Has Indian nationalist from Bengal ○ Has different strategy - fascism ○ Escapes british house arrest, flees to Nazi Germany in 1941 ○ In 1943, heads to Japan in German submarine ○ Sets up a provisional Indian government and the “Indian National Army” ○ Fights the British in Burma with the intention of eventually bringing the fight to India ○ Japanese don’t make it into Bengal The Nazi New Order in Europe Nazi germany seeks land Hiter wants to expand Germany’s territory From 1933-1938, unite Germans living in a single Pan-German state Nazi Germany expands territory without war in 1930s Sudetenland (a part of Czechoslovakia) in 1938 ○ Austria in 1938 From 1939 on, ? 1939, Hitler invades western Europe: Denmark?? Eastern Europe was the focus of the Nazis ambitions ○ 340,000 germans died on wetsren front ○ 2.7 million on eastern front ○ Eastern europe: hitler hates slavic ppl, thought they were part of an inferior race, though eatern europe would be easier to conquer bc of weaker regimes Germany’s New Order to be rules like an empire ○ Polish, Czech, Ukrainian territories would produce resources for Germans Germany sees these places and people through an imperial lens  ○ A German official in the Ukraine in 1942: “Putting it precisely, we are here in the midst of negroes” Grim irony: The place where the Germans built their empire was inhabited by the largest population of Jews in the world Nazi racial hatred of both Slavic pp