Handbook of Black Studies PDF

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available by clicking on this link, which includes an easy-to-navigate-and-sea...

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available by clicking on this link, which includes an easy-to-navigate-and-search-entry, and may also include videos, embedded datasets, downloadable datasets, interactive questions, audio content, and downloadable tables and resources. Author: Mark Christian Pub. Date: 2010 Product: Sage Reference DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Keywords: black studies, the black scholar, white supremacy, Africana womanism, womanism, Asante, Journal of Black Studies Disciplines: Race & Ethnicity, Race, Ethnicity & Migration, Black Studies, Sociology Access Date: July 8, 2024 Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc. City: Thousand Oaks Online ISBN: 9781412982696 © 2010 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Philosophy and Practice for Black Studies: The Case of Researching White Supremacy MarkChristian White supremacy is the unnamed political system that has made the modern world what it is today. You will not find this term in introductory or even advanced, texts in political theory. A standard undergraduate phi- losophy course will start off with Plato and Aristotle; perhaps say something about Augustine, Aquinas, and Machiavelli; move on to Hobbes, Locke, Mill, and Marx; and then wind up with Rawls and Nozick…. But al- though it covers more than 2,000 years of Western political thought and runs the ostensible gamut of political systems, there will be no mention of the basic political system that has shaped the world for the past several hundred years. And this omission is not accidental. Rather, it reflects the fact that standard textbooks and courses have for the most part been written and designed by whites, who take their racial privilege so much for granted that they do not even see it as political, as a form of domination. (Mills, 1997, p. 1) The idea of white supremacy is a major bowel unleashed by the structure of modern discourse…. Needless to say, the odor of the bowel and the fumes of this secretion continue to pollute the air of our postmodern times. (West, 1982, p. 65) This essay speaks to the multidimensional and complex matter of philosophy and practice within a Black Studies context. Moreover, to give a relevant insight into what may benefit the neophyte Black Studies scholar as an orientation into the field, White supremacy as a system of cultural dominance shall be examined and engaged as a principal theme to weave and thread the discussion. Although I have covered the subject of White supremacy elsewhere (see Christian, 2002b), the work was focused more on its historical origins and contemporary relevance. Herein, the emphasis is primarily on how the Black Studies scholar can navigate his or her way through the labyrinth of intellectual pitfalls associated with its continued significance in these often-labeled “postmodern” times. Above, Professors Mills (1997) and West (1982) each provide insightful and cogent philosophical statements regarding the system of White supremacy as it relates to the development of European-centered knowledge. Mills (1997) suggests that it is an unacknowledged aspect of the Western academy, and West (1982) main- tains that it reeks, polluting our collective human experience. What is most significant about each of their Handbook of Black Studies Page 2 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. statements is that they are not pointing to a “few bad apples” within Western societies. On the contrary, they maintain that White supremacy is ingrained within the origins of Western thought and is endemic within the social fabric of civil society. Furthermore, White supremacy continues to deny the collective human potential of people of color globally. To put it another way, White supremacy as a system is not an anomaly confined to an outwardly racist society, such as South Africa under the apartheid regime, but has been manifest in West- ern societies since the Enlightenment era. Nor is it confined to merely “hate group” activity within Western societies. To be sure, this is a rather disturbing position to contemplate when considering the notion of Western liberal democracies. To Be or Not to Be African Centered The fact that Mills and West would not ordinarily categorize themselves as African-centered theorists or be deemed in anyway as “Black radical” may surprise some readers. Indeed, Mills and West as Black scholars have liberal mainstream credibility as “minority philosophers.” Without being facetious, Mills and West were cited at the outset to show that non-African-centered thinkers can still espouse a commonality of perspective with African-centered scholars on a given topic. In point of fact, this essay could have begun with similar cita- tions from either distinguished or relatively new voices of African-centered scholarship, such as John Henrik Clarke, Marimba Ani, Maulana Karenga, Clenora Hudson-Weems, Bobby Wright, Amos Wilson, Jacob Car- ruthers, Frances Cress Welsing, Katherine Bankole, Molefi Kete Asante, Ivan van Sertima, Diedre Badejo, William Nelson, Jr., Tony Martin, Na'im Akbar, Miriam Ma'at Ka Re Monges, Asa Hilliard III, Anthony Browder, Wade Nobles, or Mekada Graham, to name but a few. The collective works of these African-centered scholars has long theoretically dismantled the ideological myth of White supremacy, yet rarely have these scholars been given credit within the liberal mainstream academic community. Instead, they are usually erroneously lumped together as “essentialist” Afrocentric radicals. Para- doxically, this erroneous assault can be deemed as another branch on the tree of White cultural supremacy, even though more often than not it is “Black” scholars superficially critiquing the African-centered paradigm. An important point to make here is that the Black Studies scholar in the 21st century has a vast amount of knowledge that emanates from an African-centered philosophical orientation to data at his or her disposal. Yet it is not only the work of African-centered scholars that the Black Studies scholar needs to grasp, it is also imperative to comprehend the broader perspectives that emanate from scholars such as Mills and West, who, by and large, attempt to merely reform Eurocentric canons to assimilate Black experiences. Handbook of Black Studies Page 3 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. This begs the question: Why do scholars such as Mills and West endeavor to reform something that they suggest was not created for them? This is a complex question to answer outright because of the many vari- ables, such as self-interest, careerism, not wanting to be an intellectual outcast in the Western academy, and so on. But at bottom, it is probably because many of the established mainstream Black scholars today are so deeply philosophically ingrained within the structure of European knowledge that they find it difficult to accept that alternative episte-mologies can be employed—for instance, an African-centered paradigm. The fact that many contemporary African-descended peoples function within Eurocentric environments and use European languages does not necessarily mean that to create knowledge outside this context is incongruous. To use a metaphor, when enslaved Africans (from numerous African states and peoples, mainly based in the West African region) involuntarily came into North America, they were given the worst kind of food to con- sume, yet they developed other means to enable a more varied nutrition while adapting to a hostile environ- ment. They created a diet for themselves that we now call “soul food,” and today it is still devoured by millions of Africans and many other cultural groups in North America. Crucially, no matter how difficult the times have been for Africans under the yoke of White supremacy, whether it was enslavement, colonialism, neocolonial- ism, segregation, or second-class citizenship, many have found ways to adapt and create something out of nothing. Unfortunately, other Africans have in the past and present decided that the best way to survive within the confines of White supremacy is to either assimilate or integrate into its cultural system while divesting one's African heritage. Part of this is the legacy of Africans in the Diaspora either wanting to hold onto their collec- tive cultural heritage while adapting to the specific hostile conditions or those who decided it was more advan- tageous to assimilate into the European cultural normative (Asante, 1993, pp. 37–44). This is not to suggest a uniform Blackness or Whiteness personality development in terms of African experiences in the Diaspora. In- deed, the sociopsycho dynamic of White supremacy reaching back more than 500 years has been far greater in complexity, and there is always overlap, even multiple overlap, for some personality types. This may well explain some of the incongruity among Black Studies scholars. However, to be or not to be an African-cen- tered scholar is most often an identifiable aspect of a Black scholar's philosophy and practice. Black Studies Schools of Thought In terms of the creation of knowledge, part of the complexity within Black Studies as a discipline is in the fact Handbook of Black Studies Page 4 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. that there are different schools of thought, and some are philosophically diametrically opposed to one another. For the neophyte Black scholar as a practitioner in the field, this can be confusing. However, if one consid- ers the climate in which Black Studies developed and follows the path of its growth, it is not really a surprise to find that there has and continues to be opportunists and other problematic actors in the field (Karenga, 1993, pp. 477–480). Moreover, when one understands White cultural supremacy and its complex matrix of tentacles, rarely will the progressive Black Studies scholar be caught unawares. Understanding that there are different schools of thought in Black Studies is a prerequisite lesson. For now, because of space limitations, be it stated that there are two major schools of thought with each having various subdivisions in terms of perspectives. They are the Eurocentric and Afrocentric/African cen- tered. Within the confines of the Eurocentric school, one can adopt a right or leftist approach in his or her scholarship. Take for example Tom Sowell, who can be deemed among other things, a neoconservative Black scholar who argues for Blacks to pick themselves up like White America (conveniently ignoring the effects of 500 years of White supremacy); other Black scholars in this category include Shelby Steele, Stanley Crouch, and Gerald McWhorter. Opposing such neoconservative scholars are the self-proclaimed social democratic radicals. They draw from the critical theorists of the European intellectual leftist tradition, including the works of Marx, Marcuse, Fou- cault, and others. Scholars such as Cornel West, Angela Davis, and Manning Marable come from this school of thought adopting a universal “race,” class, and gender analysis. It is in part a postmodern analysis that is eclectic, drawing from left of European scholarship and integrating the Black experience. Finally there is the “in-between” liberal-elite-cultural theorist. Scholars, such as Henry Louis Gates and K. An- thony Appiah, produce largely inaccessible, postmodernist, literary theory, attempting to signify and interpret Black historical experience and culture. These three schools of thought represent the broad offering of pre- dominately Eurocentric-framed intellectual analysis of Black culture today. In terms of the Afrocentric/African-centered school of thought, there is also variance among the Black scholars and their intellectual output. Some focus on classical African culture with an emphasis on ancient Egypt/ Kemet. Scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop, Theophile Obenga, Maulana Karenga, and Molefi Asante fit this mold. Their collective work involves the mammoth task of wresting ancient African civilizations from the grip and interpretation of fallacious Eurocentric scholarship. It is a critical aspect of African-centered learning, and all scholars in the field ought to have a basic understanding of these scholars' works. One cannot, for ex- ample, expect to understand how White supremacy has maintained itself without having read Diop, Karenga, Handbook of Black Studies Page 5 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. and Asante. African-centered scholars also focus on substantive contemporary topics, such as racialized identities, African aesthetics, social work, literature, communication, politics, popular culture, and so on. A major erroneous myth about Afrocentric scholars is that they focus only on classical Africa: princes, pyramids, and pageantry (Marable, 2000, p. 186). However, African-centered scholars are evident in most of the social sciences and humanities disciplines, albeit often isolated and vulnerable due to the many Eurocentric gatekeepers of knowl- edge, creating research grounded in African motifs and ways of knowing. Much of this work can be found in African-centered scholarly journals such as the Journal of Black Studies, Western Journal of Black Studies and the Journal of Pan-African Studies, to name a few. These journals and others are rarely cited outside of African-centered circles (Asante, 1999). Overall, the Afrocentric/African-centered school of thought continues to grow, and it is offering new insights into Black experiences that extend throughout the world. For instance, African-centered perspectives are in- fluential in the United Kingdom, and the African British community embracing such knowledge again indi- cates its usefulness (Christian, 2001, 2002a; Graham, 2001). The expansion of African-centered knowledge is something the neophyte Black Studies scholar needs to keep abreast of in philosophical and methodologi- cal terms. None of the above Black schools of thought are mutually exclusive, but they do ultimately differ in orientation to data and in research findings. Regardless of the various perspectives, each has to deal with the relevance and ubiquitous reality of White supremacy. This is the overarching cultural reality that continues to divide and rule Black communities worldwide. Just as it was in past eras, those Black intellects who resist the forces of White supremacy most vigorously are in company with the most marginalized and least credited within the mainstream. Origins of Black Studies and its Meandering Path Since its inception in the turbulent mid-1960s as an institutionalized discipline in North America, Black Studies was founded on the principles of academic excellence and social responsibility (Karenga, 2002, p. 11). But many Black Studies scholars have now diverted from the original social concerns and tenets of the discipline. Consequently, it has developed to become a field of study that has multiple perspectives. One could argue Handbook of Black Studies Page 6 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. that it is a positive thing for Black Studies not to be a homogeneous discipline. In some sense, this position is correct, but with Black Studies being divergent in philosophy, it can cause indirect stagnation. That is, all dis- ciplines have to rely on some form of consensus. But regardless of its now being an undeniably broad field of study (Marable, 2000; Painter, 2000), it is still largely deemed and characterized by the mainstream as “ghet- toized” knowledge that serves only Black students (Painter, 2000). This is a major myth, and it is ridiculous as stating that hip-hop music and culture has not reached White students! In reflecting on her tenure as a Black Studies director at Princeton and relating to the continued “ghettoized” stereotype of the discipline, Nell Irvin Painter (2000) states: In 1998 and 1999, before I stepped down as director of Princeton's program in African-American studies, it sometimes seemed to me as though the great eraser in the sky had wiped out 30 years of progress, that we had remanded to a version of 1969. Same dumb 1960's assumptions, same dumb 1960's questions: Even though our courses enroll masses of non-black students, even though promi- nent black studies departments have had non-black leadership, and even though non-black faculty members are commonplace in black-studies departments all around the country, the presumption still holds that black studies serves only black students and employs only black faculty members). (p. B8) Black Studies certainly evolved since its inception, and it now attracts students from all ethnicities within the United States and around the globe. But this function of Black Studies is at odds with a White cultural su- premacy frame of reference, and the fact that the discipline is reaching out evermore to students other than those of African heritage is again testimony to the dynamism of the field. Because Nell Irvin Painter's Black Studies experience comes out of the Ivy League in the United States, it gives greater validity in mainstream circles. Yet from an African-centered perspective, one must add that had if not been for Dr. Molefi Kete Asante developing the first Ph.D. program in African American Studies at Temple University in the 1980s, Prince- ton, Harvard, Yale, and other elite universities would probably have not developed a Black Studies agenda. Painter gives no reference to Asante's remarkable achievements in the field. Again, this relates to the com- plexity of Black Studies in that there are elite commentators who appear to be representing the field but are more concerned about being accepted by the established order. The discipline of Black Studies certainly has traveled a long and meandering intellectual road since the 1960s. Today, it is not enough to merely have access to Black Studies knowledge; one must also have the skills in approaching, interpreting, and synthesizing this data to build on it progressively from an African-centered per- Handbook of Black Studies Page 7 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. spective. To acquire the necessary intellectual skills, for example, to comprehend the depth and breadth of White supremacy, one must be sufficiently grounded in the techniques and methods of what an African-cen- tered approach to knowledge is. Tackling White Supremacy with Black Philosophy One of the key areas that the Black Studies scholar needs to master is related to the philosophical and methodological orientation to research. This may seem a basic learning strategy that is both obvious and fundamental to the reader, but developing a Black- or African-centered perspective in one's research output is undeniably far more complex than it appears, particularly when one functions as a scholar in the midst of Eurocentric cultural hegemony. The fact remains that the average Black Studies scholar today functions in a Eurocentric-led educational environment, and this can often lead to a conscious or unconscious dislocation in terms of one's scholarly endeavors. This does not mean that an African-centered scholar should adopt a “separatist” approach, but given the cultural domination via European intellectual output, it is important to de- velop independent conceptual definitions. The key African-centered theorist who has established a philosophical and methodological approach that promotes an independence from European episte-mology is Dr. Molefi Asante (1990, 1993, 1998, 1999). In responding to one of Cornel West's shallow assaults on the Afrocentric paradigm, which can be used inter- changeably with African-centered paradigm, Asante makes indirect reference to the reality of White suprema- cy on the minds of Black scholars that cannot escape the Eurocentric intellectual canon and its varied frames of reference, from structuralism, poststructuralism, Marxist to postmodernist: Why do we have to dance the dance of self-alienation? Why do we fear our own truth? Surely Cornel West does not believe we are devoid of a contribution. I believe that five centuries of white cultural domination have dislocated and disorientated Africans who now seek refuge in white experiences, intellectually and socially. It is fear that must be overcome if we are ever to present our truth to the world. To run so much after the white intellectual tradition and away from the writings and thoughts of one's own scholars is the same inferiority that lurked on the plantations [among those who did not want to resist]. (Asante, 1993, p. 40) Asante respects the fact that Cornel West is a “remarkable intellectual” who means well by his people, but Handbook of Black Studies Page 8 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. at bottom, he is so attached to the Eurocentric canon of knowledge that he desires acceptance and freedom within its realm as a Black intellectual. However, African-centered scholars maintain that Africans can never be truly free as thinkers if we adopt and shape our minds within Eurocentric discourse. One may gain some popularity and rise in elite mainstream circles, but this is not being “free” in the sense that Afrocentric scholars argue. This is where the complexity emerges for the neophyte Black Studies scholar, because it is necessary to come to terms with distinguishing what actually does constitute intellectual freedom that is devoid of the in- sidious nuances of White cultural supremacy. It is unfortunate to state that one will not find it ultimately in the works of Cornel West or bell hooks who basically inadvertently appeal merely to White guilt and liberal-post- modernist reform of society. Yet this does not mean that they are not useful; they often adequately analyze the negativity and emasculating effects of White cultural supremacy, ironically. Consider the following citation from bell hooks (1996): When liberal whites fail to understand how they can and/or do embody white supremacist values even though they may not embrace racism as prejudice or domination (especially domination that involves coercive control), they cannot recognize the ways their actions support and affirm the very structure of racist domination and oppression that they profess to wish to see eradicated. (p. 185) The analysis hooks puts forward of the White liberal and his or her relationship to White supremacy is useful. But in reading her work from the Black feminist perspective she espouses, it seems that she is unwittingly locked within a Eurocentric approach. Again, like West and other Black postmodernists in the field, hooks is courted by the mainstream and critiques Afrocentricity in a very shallow manner. When hooks moves away from critiquing White supremacy to consider Afrocentricity, it is akin to reading someone who has failed to consider the school of thought broadly. This is unfortunate, for hooks has a lot to offer in terms of her critique of White supremacy. In regard to gender, hooks (1996) writes, “Within Afrocen- tric scholarship black women writers frame their discourse in relation to knowledge received from patriarchal black male elders” (p. 245). Because hooks has little understanding of the Afrocentric field and has clearly not read broadly on Africana womanism, it will be useful here to consider the work of an African-centered scholar who can eloquently re- spond to her. Indeed, so influential is Clenora Hudson-Weems's research on Africana womanism that an en- tire special edition of the Western Journal of Black Studies (Hudson-Weems, 2001) was dedicated to it. Handbook of Black Studies Page 9 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Africana Womanism as an Antidote to White Supremacy The work of Clenora Hudson-Weems (1995) exemplifies a much-needed fresh approach in understanding and healing the relationship between Black men and women, along with their families. As the originator of the term “Africana womanism,” her work is African centered and extremely progressive in that it offers unity among Black men and women, where Black feminist theory has mainly produced division. In her concise cri- tique of mainstream feminist theory, Dr. Hudson-Weems (1995) maintains: Feminism, a term conceptualized and adopted by White women, involves an agenda that was de- signed to meet the needs and demands of that particular group. For this reason, it is quite plausible for White women to identify with feminism and the feminist movement. Having said that, the fact remains that placing all women's history under White women's history, thereby giving the latter the definitive position, is problematic. In fact, it demonstrates the ultimate of racist arrogance and domi- nation, suggesting that authentic activity of women resides with White women. (p. 21) Hudson-Weems (1995) responds to bell hooks and maintains that even though she is “celebrated” as a major voice for Black women in the White feminist movement she will never be elevated to the same status as either Betty Friedan or Gloria Steinem. At best, she and other Black feminists like her are given only temporary recognition as representatives and spokespersons for Africana people in general and Africana women in particular. Black feminists ad- vance an agenda that is in direct contravention to that in the Africana community, thereby demon- strating a certain lack of African centered historical and contemporary perspective. (p. 27) A main point that Hudson-Weems is addressing relates to the issue of definition and terminology that is rep- resentative and relevant to Black experiences. She suggests that African peoples can never be free if we simply try to fit into the theoretical and conceptual clothing of Eurocentric intellectuals. As with the majority of African-centered thinkers, the task is to create definitions and concepts that make sense to our experience, not someone else's (Ani, 1994; Ntiri, 2001). Indeed, to go beyond the confines of African-centered discourse, even European writers indirectly acknowl- edge that those who dominate hold definitions. George Orwell's (1949, part 1, sec. 3) famous dictum “He who controls the past, controls the future. He who controls the present controls the past” makes sense and Hudson-Weems provides a way for African-descent women to forge positive and viable harmony with their Handbook of Black Studies Page 10 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. men and families. This is not to suggest Africana womanism is male centered or derived from patriarchal Black male elders! On the contrary, it is a gender theory that was created by Dr. Hudson-Weems for the ul- timate benefit of women of African descent and their community, which consists of brothers, sisters, nieces, nephews, uncles, aunts, and so forth. What makes it so revolutionary compared with Black feminism is that its aim is to build unity and balance among Black men and women, along with creating a strong Black com- munity that can withstand the social, cultural, economic, and political realities of White supremacy. The primacy of “race” is at the forefront of Hudson-Weems's Africana womanism theory. Ntiri (2001) explains it in this manner: She [Hudson-Weems] operationalizes her theory on the assumption that race is of paramount im- portance in any deliberations of or about Africana women. Since any discourse involving Africana people cannot escape the historical realities of Eurocentrism, oppression, and domination, it makes sense to articulate a clear and firm position that is inclusive of those realities. (p. 164) When we consider the pivotal link between racialized oppression and the global African experience, it is dif- ficult to disagree with the Black women scholars who write within an Africana womanist frame of reference. To create independent concepts and ways of knowing other than those produced by Eurocentric intellectu- als is fundamental to the continued liberation struggle of African peoples (Ani, 1994; Asante, 1999; Hudson- Weems, 1995). Because racialized discrimination has arguably been the major social impediment to Black/ African progress, it again makes sense to have an African-centered womanist perspective that emphasizes this. Hudson-Weems (1995) states that it is critical to both understand and appreciate her model of an Africana woman that has a total of 18 features. The Africana woman's common features are as follows: 1. A self-namer 2. A self-definer 3. Family centered 4. Genuine in sisterhood 5. Strong 6. In concert with male in struggle 7. Whole 8. Authentic 9. A flexible role player Handbook of Black Studies Page 11 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. 10. Respected 11. Recognized 12. Spiritual 13. Male compatible 14. Respectful of elders 15. Adaptable 16. Ambitious 17. Mothering 18. Nurturing In analyzing the key features of an Africana woman, we find it to be an ideal type that if embraced more widely would create more positive environments in Black communities across the globe. There will no doubt be those Black feminists who are not in any manner male compatible, who will critique Dr. Hudson-Weems's model as lacking in terms of not addressing the issue of lesbianism, but this is more than covered via the work of hooks and other Black feminists. Crucially, Africana wom-anism offers a gender perspective that is wholesome and positive in engendering a Black family based on respect, love, and community. That is certainly something to be celebrated, and the neophyte Black Studies scholar needs to consider the relevance of such a theory as an alternative to the many narrow Black feminist approaches to Black liberation. White Supremacy as a Continuum Most often, White supremacy is a taken-for-granted term that is glibly strewn across academic papers. It rarely is defined systematically. This may well be due to scholars' accepting the social reality of it as a matter of fact and not in need of definition. Nevertheless, it is useful to put it as a system of civil organization in some form of context. This essay began with citations linking the concept of White supremacy to the intellectual discourse contained in the European tradition (Mills, 1997; West 1982). Let us now consider it within an addi- tional context. First, a dictionary definition of White supremacy can be found in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (1998, p. 2169): “The belief, theory, or doctrine that the white race is superior to all other races, esp. the black race, and therefore should retain control in all relations” (American 1865–1870). Interestingly, the definition above is from the United States and emerged between 1865 and 1870, and this was after de jure enslavement had Handbook of Black Studies Page 12 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. officially ended. It was also the period of Reconstruction during which African Americans were provided with a modicum of social and political opportunities to advance in southern society. This was cut short with the controversial presidential election of 1876 and with the Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes conced- ing the removal of federal troops from the South in return for disputed electoral college votes. This era also saw the rise of the far-right hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, the White Brotherhood, and the Knights of the White Camelia, who “terrorized blacks and their allies, murdering, lynching, raping, beating” (Bigsby & Thompson, 1989, p. 187; Woodward, 1974). This brutal form of White supremacy is the most commonly known, but the tentacles are manifold. White supremacy is historically based, and it has been perpetuated via European nations and their respective settlers in the “New World” and Africa. Moreover, people of African descent have been subjected to both ex- plicit and implicit forms of White supremacy via civil institutions and political apparatus. The exploitation of people of color, perpetuated fundamentally to enhance wealth and privilege for Europeans, did not end with the culmination of the enslavement system or with segregation policies; neither did it end with the decline of colonialism and the rise of somewhat independent states in Africa and the Caribbean. On the contrary, White supremacy has been a very flexible and adaptable cultural system that has been able to shape and reshape itself to fit historical and contemporary conditions. To have a clear understanding and to be able to analyze it as a Black Studies scholar, one must consider White supremacy as a continuum. At one end there is the mild form leading up to severe forms of White su- premacy. For example, a mild form of it can be deemed the everyday experience of Black people not being served in a department store until the White patrons have been served or the experience of being followed around the store by a security guard. These are common incidents that Black people face day to day in con- temporary times, but they can be considered mild, or micro, types of White supremacy as they take place because of the reality of everyday White privilege and discrimination. Moving along the continuum, the reality of it gets more severe: job discrimination, lack of promotions, hate group crime, institutional racism/s, media bias in favor of Eurocentric cultural norms, governmental and national avoidance of antiracist policy initia- tives, ethnocentric education that denies a multidimensional study of people of color, and so forth. Indeed, the tentacles of White supremacy are manifold, ranging from mild to severe types. The neophyte Black Studies scholar needs to have a keen perception in delineating the contours and trajectories of White supremacy be- cause it can be complex following its destructive historical and contemporary trail. Handbook of Black Studies Page 13 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Conclusion The need for continued assessment and development of the Black Studies discipline is vital (Karenga, 2000). Especially important for the neophyte Black Studies scholar coming into the field is an appreciation of the vast amount of knowledge available via a variety of, often conflicting, sources. Comprehension of the basic intellectual schools of thought is imperative and being cognizant of what constitutes an African-centered per- spective or a Eurocentric perspective is of utmost importance. A key aspect of the contemporary struggle faced by Black Studies scholars who are committed to the origins and tenets of the discipline is in recapturing it from those who have infiltrated the field with Eurocentric per- spectives. One should not be too surprised that this has happened over nearly four decades of institutional- ization. Nevertheless, advocates of Black Studies and the African-centered paradigm should note that if the discipline is not taken away from mainstream Eurocentric Black scholars via critical scholarship, it could seri- ously flounder. This essay, to enhance clarity, may be guilty of providing only a cursory discussion in regard to the complexity of Black Studies philosophy and practice. However, the reader must see this contribution as an integral part of the book. No doubt, interaction with and cross-reference reading of other essays will certainly endorse and expand on the points made here. One of the most exciting aspects of African-centered discourse is provided by the growing interest in Africana womanism (Hudson-Weems, 1995). This is an important and timely perspective in the field that is likely to revolutionize the discussions surrounding Black female and male relationships. Moreover, it provides a much- needed response to the usual trite Black feminist analysis of Black experience. What Africana womanism of- fers is a way to bring Black families together positively while keeping the dignity of the African woman central in the analysis. African-centered women intellectuals will increasingly be at the forefront of the Black liberation struggle against White supremacy, and this is a positive development in the Black Studies field. Clearly, there is much still to learn and comprehend in relation to the historical cultural dynamic of White su- premacy. It has been contended that it operates on many levels in the contemporary social world as a contin- uum. In terms of the education system, it is evident that the dominant Eurocentric frame of reference contin- ues to hold sway. With this, the perspectives of people of color continue to be marginalized, regardless of the diversity initiatives that abound, particularly in universities in the United States and the United Kingdom. Handbook of Black Studies Page 14 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. In this sense, Black Studies provides a much-needed redress. The next generation of scholars to emerge in the discipline will have the best of times and the worst of times sifting through the various perspectives in the field. One can only hope that each neophyte Black Studies scholar develops an independence of thought that is as distinctive as the seasoned scholars related to the African-centered paradigm. References Ani, M. (1994). Yurugu: An African centered critique of European cultural thought and behavior. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Asante, M. K. (1990). Kemet, Afrocentricity and knowledge. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Asante, M. K. (1993). Malcolm X as cultural hero & other Afrocentric essays. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Asante, M. K. (1998). The Afrocentric idea, revised and expanded. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Asante, M. K. (1999). The painful demise of Eurocentrism. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Bigsby, C.W. E., & Thompson, R. (1989). The Black experience. In M. Bradbury & H. Temperley (Eds.), Intro- duction to American Studies (2nd ed., pp. 181–210). New York: Longman. Christian, M.African centered knowledge: A British perspective. Western Journal of Black Studies25(1) (2001). 12–20. Christian, M.An African centered perspective on White supremacy. Journal of Black Studies33(2) (2002a). 179–198. Christian, M. (Ed.). (2002b). Black identity in the 20th century: Expressions of the US and UK African Diaspo- ra. London: Hansib. Graham, M. (2001). Social work and African centred worldviews. Birmingham, UK: Venture Press. Hooks, B. (1996). Killing rage: Ending racism. London: Penguin. Hudson-Weems, C. (1995). Africana womanism: Reclaiming ourselves (3rd ed.). Troy, MI: Bedford. Hudson-Weems, C.Africana womanism: The flip side of the coin [Special edition]Western Journal of Black Handbook of Black Studies Page 15 of 16 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Studies25(3). (2001). Karenga, M. (1993). Introduction to Black Studies (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press. Karenga, M. (2000). Black Studies: A critical assessment. In M. Marable (Ed.), Dispatches from the ebony tower: Intellectuals confront the African American experience (pp. 162–170). New York: Columbia University. Karenga, M. (2002). Introduction to Black Studies (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press. Marable, M. (Ed.). (2000). Dispatches from the ebony tower: Intellectuals confront the African American ex- perience. New York: Columbia University Press. Mills, C. W. (1997). The racial contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Ntiri, D. W.Reassessing Africana womanism: Continuity and change. Western Journal of Black Studies25(3) (2001). 163–167. Orwell, G. (1949). Nineteen eighty-four, a novel. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Painter, N. I.Black Studies, Black professors, and the struggles of perceptionChronicle of Higher Education (2000, December 15.) pp. B7–B9. Webster's unabridged dictionary. (1998). New York: Random House. West, C. (1982). Prophesy deliverance: An Afro-American revolutionary Christianity. Philadelphia: Westmin- ster Press. Woodward, C. V. (1974). The strange career of Jim Crow (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. black studies the black scholar white supremacy Africana womanism womanism Asante Journal of Black Studies https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Handbook of Black Studies Page 16 of 16