HC1 European History PDF

HC 1 **After the war, 3 key points occurred:** 1. **Economic reconstruction of Europe:** - Stimulated by the **Marshall Plan** - This was a profitable investment for the US - America wanted **to prevent the rise of communism** - Europe needed to become a **reliable...

HC 1 **After the war, 3 key points occurred:** 1. **Economic reconstruction of Europe:** - Stimulated by the **Marshall Plan** - This was a profitable investment for the US - America wanted **to prevent the rise of communism** - Europe needed to become a **reliable trading partner for America** - America needed **a new export market** - **Europe got financial aid** from America 2. **Militairy security** - Europe is divided in a Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc (Communism vs Capitalism) - Establishment of NATO (1949) - **Response to the Cold War** - An attack on one is an attack on all - Warsaw Pact (1955) - **Counterpart to NATO** - Suez Crisis: - Great Britain and France lose control over the Suez Canal - The U.S. and Soviet Union became the new global powers - Europe chose to cooperate with the U.S. 3. **Preventing nationalism:** - Key lesson from World War II: Nationalism leads to conflict - Especially hostility between France and Germany - **Economically connecting countries** should prevent wars - Schuman and Monnet are looking for more integration. (Monnet: Ground father of EU) **Establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)** - 1951 - By 'governments of The Six': France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy,\ Luxembourg - Idea: Germany can rebuild its economy, but no German domination\ ('Alleingang') - First supranational organization to which European governments transfer\ significant powers - Did not result in single market for coal and steel, but a first step **European Economic Community (EEC):** - 1955: More ambitious plan: the creation of a common market within 12 years - Removing all restrictions on the internal movement of people, money and services - Common external tariff for goods coming into the EEC - Common agricultural, trade and transport policies - International developments triggered more cooperation: to what extent could\ Western Europe rely on US? - First enlargement in 1973: Britain, Denmark, Ireland - 1974-1975: Portugal, Spain and Greece - Doubling of membership \> increasing global influence of EEC + change of dynamics\ \> reducing overall influence of Germany and France + economic balance changed **Single Market & a European currency** - No true single market without a common European currency - Controversial idea: reduction of national sovereignty + significant move\ towards a political union - International developments: end of the Bretton Woods system (1971-1973) - Single European Act was signed in 1986. Goal: removing all remaining\ barriers to the free movement of people, money, goods and services - Difficult in practice - *Schengen Agreement* **Maastricht Treaty:** 1. International events: fall of the Berlin Wall, German Unification, Collapse of the Soviet Union 2. How to integrate the former East Bloc countries in the European Economic Community? 3. Enlargement: Austria, Finland, Sweden (1995) 4. Pillars of Maastricht Treaty: - Economic and Monetary Union: euro and a European Central bank (+opt out) - Common foreign and security policy - Europol - EU citizenship - More power to European Parliament - Not: Political Union, Social Union. 'First signs of euroscepticism **Introduction of the Euro:** - 2002 - 12 of the 15 countries replaced their currencies with the Euro - Logistically massive: - Billions of new bills and coins in circulation **EU Expansion:** - Biggest enlargement in the history of the EU - 2004: Cyprus -- Czech Republic -- Estonia -- Hungary -- Latvia -- Lithuania -- Malta --\ Poland -- Slovenia -- Slovakia - 2007: Bulgaria and Romania - 2013: Croatia - Fall of the Berlin Wall sparked optimism - Initially, there was a lot of enthusiasm about expanding the EU - Seen as an opportunity to bring democracy and prosperity to new countries **Euroscepticism** - In the nineties the first antipathy and actions against the European unification ('ever closer union') appear - The rise of right-wing populist parties, focusing on national sovereignty, xenophobia and protectionism: structurally attracting 15 -- 25 % of the electorate - The accession of 12 new member states (2004-2007) , mostly from the east, increases the divide between the rich (and frugal?) north west versus the poverty (and easiness?) of the south and the communist past (weak state of law) of the east; this in spite of strict Copenhagen criteria for entrance - **Rejection of the EU Constitution:** - The Netherlands and France rejected the proposed European Constitution in 2005 i. This led to growing euroscepticism - This skeptical attitude was strengthened by the rise of right-wing populist parties opposing further EU integration under the guise of protecting national sovereignty and economic protectionism - The constitution became the Treaty of Lisbon - It retained many of the measures from the original constitution - 80-90% of the original proposal was preserved - Since it wasn't called a \"constitution,\" it faced less opposition **Limitations of the EU:** - Despite great successes, like open borders and a single market, there are still areas for improvement - There is a lack of a common defense policy - As well as a uniform migration policy - The EU mainly reacts to crises, such as during COVID-19 - Crisis-driven responses are not necessarily bad, according to experts - Others argue for more structure **Double standards within the EU:** - On one hand, there are common policy areas - For example, in health, climate, and culture - One market - One currency - EU citizenship - On the other hand, there is no uniform defense or migration policy - Countries can still have their own financial policy - No common migration policy - Countries want to maintain their sovereignty regarding migration - Populist parties make it harder to cede sovereignty - They advocate for less power for Brussels **Future of the EU:** - Brexit had a shock effect on countries considering leaving the EU - Despite anti-EU parties, such as those in Italy and Poland, Brexit has likely deterred further exits - More countries are still interested in joining the EU HC 2 Europese Commissie ------------------ - **What is the European Commission?**\ The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. It can be compared to a government at the EU level. The Commission represents the interests of the entire EU, rather than those of individual member states. It is responsible for the day-to-day management of the EU and the implementation of EU policies. - **What does the European Commission do?**\ The Commission's main task is to propose new EU legislation. Only the Commission has the right to submit legislative proposals, which means it plays a crucial role in the legislative process. Additionally, the Commission oversees the enforcement of EU laws by member states and ensures these laws are upheld if countries do not comply. The Commission also manages the EU budget and represents the EU in international negotiations. For example, in trade agreements between the EU and third countries, the Commission acts as the negotiating party on behalf of the EU. - **Who is part of the European Commission?**\ The Commission consists of 27 commissioners, one from each EU member state. These commissioners are not representatives of their home countries but are responsible for specific policy areas, such as the environment, trade, or internal affairs. Commissioners are appointed for a term of five years. Head of commission is Ursula Von Der Leyen. - **Who is the head of the European Commission?**\ The President of the European Commission is the leader of the Commission and plays an important role in setting priorities and coordinating the work of the commissioners. Currently, Ursula von der Leyen (as of 2024) is the President of the European Commission. - **How much power does the European Commission have?**\ The Commission holds significant power, especially through its exclusive right to propose legislation. While it cannot pass laws itself (this is done by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union), it plays a central role in shaping EU policies. The Commission also has executive power: it ensures that EU decisions are complied with by member states and businesses. - **How democratic is the European Commission?**\ The European Commission is indirectly democratic. Although citizens do not directly vote for the commissioners, they are nominated by their national governments and must be approved by the European Parliament, which is directly elected by European citizens. The President of the Commission is also proposed by the European Council and must be approved by Parliament. European Council ---------------- - **What is the European Council?**\ The European Council is the institution that comprises the heads of state or government of the EU member states. It is not a legislative body like the Parliament or the Council of the European Union, but it sets the overall political direction of the EU. The European Council typically meets four times a year (the so-called \"European summits\"), but can convene more frequently in times of crisis. - **What does the European Council do?**\ The European Council sets the strategic priorities and broad political directions of the EU. It determines the long-term direction of the EU, for example, regarding economic strategy, foreign relations, and security policy. The European Council also provides major political impetus, especially during negotiations on sensitive issues like climate policy or migration. - **Who is part of the European Council?**\ The European Council consists of the heads of state or government of the 27 EU member states, the President of the European Council, and the President of the European Commission. The High Representative for Foreign Affairs also participates in meetings when external relations are discussed. - **Who is the head of the European Council?**\ The European Council has a permanent president, currently Charles Michel (as of 2024). This individual is elected by the heads of government for a term of 2.5 years, with the possibility of re-election. The President of the European Council is responsible for chairing the meetings and mediating between the different member states but does not have voting rights. - H**ow much power does the European Council have?**\ The European Council has a great deal of influence as it makes the key decisions on the EU\'s future and priorities. However, it cannot propose or pass laws; that is the role of the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Council of the European Union. The European Council primarily influences strategic and political choices, such as granting new powers to the EU or expanding the Union with new member states. - **How democratic is the European Council?**\ The members of the European Council (the heads of government) are indirectly democratically elected, as they are the leaders of national governments that are elected by their citizens. However, the President of the European Council is not directly elected by the public. Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) ---------------------------------------------------- - **What is the Council of the European Union?**\ The Council of the EU (also known as the Council of Ministers) represents the **national governments** of the member states. Together with the European Parliament, the Council forms the legislative branch of the EU. The Council plays a central role in the Union\'s decision-making process, especially when establishing EU legislation. - **What does the Council of the European Union do?**\ The Council of the EU negotiates and adopts laws together with the European Parliament. The Council also plays an important role in coordinating policies between member states, for example, on economic policy, security and justice, and foreign relations. Additionally, the Council represents the EU in international negotiations alongside the European Commission. - **Who is part of the Council of the European Union?**\ The Council of the EU consists of ministers from the governments of the member states. Which ministers meet depends on the topic being discussed. For example, agriculture ministers will meet if agricultural policy is being discussed, and finance ministers will meet when discussing economic issues. - **Who is the head of the Council of the European Union?**\ The presidency of the Council of the EU rotates every six months between the member states. This means there is no permanent president. The member state holding the presidency chairs the meetings and plays a coordinating role between the different member states and EU institutions. - **How much power does the Council of the European Union have?**\ The Council holds significant power, as it can adopt and amend laws together with the European Parliament. The Council also has authority in areas such as foreign policy and security and can conclude treaties with other countries or international organizations. - **How democratic is the Council of the European Union?**\ The Council of the EU is indirectly democratic, as the ministers participating are members of national governments that have been elected by their citizens. European Parliament ------------------- - **What is the European Parliament?**\ The European Parliament is the only EU institution directly elected by the citizens of the member states. It represents European citizens and plays an important role in the EU\'s legislative process. - **What does the European Parliament do?**\ The Parliament has three main functions: - It passes laws together with the Council of the EU. Although Parliament cannot propose laws itself, it can amend legislative proposals and vote on them. - It approves the EU budget and oversees spending. - It supervises other EU institutions, especially the European Commission. The Parliament has the right to hold the Commission accountable and can even force it to resign through a motion of no confidence. - **Who is part of the European Parliament?**\ The European Parliament consists of 705 members (MEPs), who are elected every five years by the citizens of the member states. The number of seats per country is based on population size. - **Who is the head of the European Parliament?**\ The European Parliament has a president, who chairs meetings and represents the Parliament in external relations. The current president is Roberta Metsola (as of 2024). The president is elected by the members of Parliament for a 2.5-year term. - **How much power does the European Parliament have?**\ The European Parliament has significant power in the EU's legislative process, sharing decision-making with the Council of the EU. It can approve, amend, or reject laws and the EU budget, and holds the European Commission accountable. However, it cannot propose laws and has limited influence in areas like defense and taxation. Federalism vs Confederalisme ---------------------------- The EU is like a state, it is independent, its territory is clearly marked, it has sovereignty and it has legitimacy (both the people of the country and others identify it as a state). **Federalism:** Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and individual states or regions, with both levels having certain powers independently. Examples include the United States and Germany. Federalism doesn't have a fixed template though. - **United States is a *federal republic*** - **Features federalism:** - Difference with states in US and EU, is that countries in EU can almost do everything that US states cannot. For example, US states cannot make treaties. - And the EU institutions have few of the power that the federal government of the US has. Yet, the EU has some key features of Federalism. - The EU has different levels of government, from European to local, each with some control over different areas of policy. - In certain areas like trade, agriculture, and social issues, EU countries have agreed to share power, and EU laws take priority over national laws. - The European Parliament, which is elected by the people, is gaining more influence in making laws for the EU, while national parliaments are losing some control as a result. - The EU has its own budget, which is smaller than most national budgets but gives the EU some financial independence. - The European Commission can negotiate with other countries for all EU members in areas where it's been given authority. - Eighteen EU countries use the euro as their currency, meaning they have given control over their monetary policy to the European Central Bank (ECB) in Frankfurt. After the eurozone crisis, there has also been more shared responsibility for managing government budgets (fiscal policy). **Confederalism** **Confederalism:** Confederalism is a looser system where the central authority has limited power, and most of the sovereignty remains with the individual states or regions. The central government acts more as a coordinator of the states, which retain most of the governing power. Examples include historical confederations like the Articles of Confederation in early U.S. history or the European Union to some extent. And also, Switzerland was Confederal up to 1798. **Features confederalism** - Citizens of EU countries only directly engage with the European Parliament, which they vote for. The main EU institutions, like the European Commission and the Council of the EU, get their authority from the national leaders, not from the people. These institutions are either run by national leaders or appointed by them. - EU countries still have their own identities, laws, and can make agreements with other countries. They can also act independently in foreign policy and see the EU as something they participate in by choice. There isn't one clear European government with strong central leaders, like a president or foreign minister. The most powerful figures are still the national leaders of each country. - The EU doesn't have a Europe-wide tax system. It gets some money from levies and customs duties, but most taxes like income or property taxes are collected by individual countries or local governments, which also decide their tax policies. - There is no single European army. Each country's military is still controlled by its own government, though there are small groups working together towards a European defense force. - Although the EU has its own flag and anthem, most people feel a stronger connection to their own country's flag, anthem, and symbols. There has been limited progress in creating a shared European identity.