B. Pharmacy Semester-1 Human Anatomy and Physiology Practical PDF

WWW.DRNAITIKTRIVEDI.COM !!JAY AMBE!! B. PHARMACY SEMESTER – I HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I PRACTICALS ED ACCORDING TO PCI SYLLABUS IV TR...

WWW.DRNAITIKTRIVEDI.COM !!JAY AMBE!! B. PHARMACY SEMESTER – I HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I PRACTICALS ED ACCORDING TO PCI SYLLABUS IV TR I & PREPARED BY ED D DR. NAITIK D. TRIVEDI, IV M. PHARM, PH. D IK LECTURER AT GOVERNMENT AIDED, TR A. R. COLLEGE OF PHARMACY & G. H. PATEL INSTITUTE OF IT PHARMACY, VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ANAND. Mobile: +91 - 9924567864 N. NA E-mail: [email protected] & A. AM DR DR. UPAMA N. TRIVEDI, UP M. PHARM, PH. D ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR & HoD (Pharm.D), INDUBHAI PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY AND RESEARCH. CENTRE, DHARMAJ. E-mail: [email protected] DR YOUTUBE CHANNEL: https://www.youtube.com/c/DRNAITIKTRIVEDI  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL CERTIFICATE ______________ Year:______________ I ED This is to certify that Mr./Miss. _____________________________________________ IV of ________________________ at ___________________________________________ TR I & Enrollment No. ___________________________ & Roll No. _____ has satisfactory ED completed his/her ________ out of ________ experiments/practicals of the subject D IV ________________________________________ for the academic year 20 __ to 20 __. IK TR IT Signed by: N. NA A _________________ ________________ ______________. AM DR Head of Department External Examiner Subject Teacher UP Date of certified:. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL INDEX SR. EX. AIM OF EXPERIMENTS DATE PAGE SIGNATURE NO. NO. NO. OF TEACHER 1. 1. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF 1-9 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY TO STUDY THE USE AND CARE OF I 2. 2. 10-13 ED MICROSCOPE 3. 3. TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF 14-25 IV EPITHELIAL AND CONNECTIVE 4. 4. TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF 26-33 TR I & MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS TISSUE ED 5. 5. TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF 34-40 D AXIAL BONES IV 6. 6. TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF 41-49 IK APPENDICULAR BONES 7. 7. TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF THE TR50-53 IT HEMOCYTOMETER N. NA 8. 8. TO ESTIMATION TOTAL WBC COUNT OF 54-57 OWN BLOOD SAMPLE 9. 9. TO ESTIMATE TOTAL RBC 58-62 A. (ERYTHROCYTE) COUNT OF OWN AM DR BLOOD SAMPLE UP 10. 10. TO STUDY AND DETERMINATION OF THE 63-65 BLEEDING TIME OF OWN BLOOD SAMPLE. 11. 11. TO DETERMINE THE CLOTTING TIME OF 66-72 DR OWN BLOOD SAMPLE 12. 12. TO ESTIMATE HAEMOGLOBIN WITH THE 73-77 HELP OF SAHLI'S HAEMOGLOBINOMETER AND COLOR INDEX https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 13. 13. TO FIND OUT BLOOD GROUP OF OWN 78-81 BLOOD SAMPLE 14. 14. TO DETERMINE ERYTHROCYTE 82-87 SEDIMENTATION RATE BY WESTERGREN'S METHOD 15. 15. TO STUDY AND DETERMINATION OF 88-92 HEART RATE AND PULSE RATE I ED 16. 16. TO MEASURE THE BLOOD PRESSURE 93-99 USING SPHYGMOMANOMETER 17. QUESTIONS IV 100-122 TR I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT NO.: 1 DATE: AIM: INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY INTRODUCTION:  Anatomy and physiology concern with the structures and functions of the human body.  Anatomy describes the structures of the body -- their scientific names, composition, I location, and associated structures. Anatomy (“a cutting open”) is a plan or map of the ED body.  Physiology studies the function of each structure, individually and in combination with other structures. IV  Anatomy and physiology always work together. As we examine each part of the body, TR I & always consider both its structure and its function. ED  The study of anatomy is divided into 2 major fields: D 1. Gross anatomy is the study of large visible structures IV 2. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that are too small to see, such as cells IK TR and molecules. 1. Gross anatomy, also called macroscopic anatomy, is separated into 5 major divisions: IT A. Surface anatomy describes surface forms and marks. N. NA B. Regional anatomy describes the organization of specific areas of the body such as the head or hand. This approach is used mostly in professional schools: medical, dental, physical therapy. A. AM C. Systemic anatomy describes groups of organs that function together for a single DR purpose. UP D. Developmental anatomy describes the structural changes in an organism from fertilized egg to maturity. Embryology is the anatomical study of early development. E. Clinical anatomy describes various medical specialties, including medical anatomy. (changes that occur during illness), and radiographic anatomy. DR 2. Microscopic anatomy is divided into two major divisions: A. Cytology, the study of cells and their structures. B. Histology, the study of tissues and their structures.  Physiology has many specialties. The 4 basic divisions are: 1. Cell physiology, including chemical and molecular processes within and between cells. 2. Special physiology, the study of specific organs such as the heart. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 1  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 3. Systemic physiology, the cooperative functions of all the organs in an organ system. We will use a systemic physiology approach in this class. 4. Pathological physiology, the effects of diseases on organs and organ systems.  Levels of Organization  Our bodies are organized at many different levels.  The levels of organization of living things, from smallest to largest, are: 1. Atoms, the smallest functional units of matter. I 2. Molecules, active chemicals. ED 3. Organelles, specialized structures within a cell. IV 4. Cells, the smallest living units. 5. Tissues, a group of similar cells that work together. TR 6. Organs, two or more tissue types working together. I & 7. Organ systems, two or more organs working together. ED 8. Organism, a single individual, including all of the above. D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR The human body is divided into 11 interconnected organ systems. All organ systems work together, and many organs function in more than 1 organ system. 1. The Integumentary System: includes the skin & derived structures, it protects internal organs & helps maintain body temperature. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 2  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 2. The Skeletal System: includes the bones & joints, it provides support & protection to internal organs. 3. The Muscular System: includes skeletal muscle and it provides movement. 4. The Nervous System: includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It provides regulation of body functions & sensory perception. 5. The Endocrine System: includes hormone-producing cells & glands. It regulates homeostasis, growth & development. I ED 6. The Cardiovascular System: includes blood, heart, & blood vessels. It is responsible for delivery of oxygen & nutrients to the tissues. IV 7. The Lymphatics & Immune System: includes lymphatic vessels & fluid. It is involved in the defense against infection. TR 8. The Respiratory System: includes lungs & airways. It is involved in the absorption of I & ED oxygen & release of carbon dioxide. D 9. The Digestive System: includes organs of the gastrointestinal tract. It is responsible IV for the absorption of nutrients. IK 10. The Urinary System: includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. It is responsible for electrolyte balance & waste removal. TR IT 11. The Reproductive System: includes the reproductive organs in males and females. It N. controls the biological process by which new individuals are produced. NA HOMEOSTASIS:  Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite a changing external A. environment. Dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance. AM DR  The body is said to be in homeostasis when its cellular needs are adequately met and UP functional activities are occurring smoothly.  Virtually every organ system plays a role in maintaining the internal environment. A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of 5 parts:. 1. Receptors: It act as a sensors/receiver that respond to a stimulus. It monitors change in DR control condition. 2. Sensory Neurons: It send the input information/message to control center, means information from cell/tissue/organ etc to integrated system i.e brain and spinal cord. 3. Integrated System: It analyze the incoming message received from the sensory neurons and sends out commands/messages. In the body there are hundred controlled https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 3  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL conditions. A few examples are heart rate, blood pressure, temperature and breathing rate. 4. Motor Neurons: The output information/message from integrated center (brain and spinal cord) to cell/tissue/organ etc are travelled by motor neurons. 5. Effectors: The cell/tissue/organ etc act as effector that responds according to output command of the control/integrated center. Receptors, control center and effectors maintain the homeostasis by two mechanisms: I ED 1. Negative feedback:  When the response of effectors opposes the original stimulus, it is called negative IV feedback because it negates the stimulus.  An example of negative feedback is the temperature thermostat in your home. TR  I & Temperature sensors turn the air conditioner off and on to maintain air temperature ED within a specific, limited range. D  In the same way, the brain controls normal body-temperature homeostasis by negative IV feedback. IK – Some stimulus (Stress) disrupts homeostasis (control condition) by an increase in body temperature. TR IT – Due to this condition thermoreceptors (temperature sensitive receptors) in the N. NA skin and brain activate and send input message via nerve impulse to control center. – Control center analyze the input message and send output message to effectors A. (skin). AM DR – Effectors according to output message of control center increases sweating from UP sweat glands causes increased heat loss by evaporation. – Finally, decreases the temperature in the form of response and normalize the body temperature (control condition).. 2. Positive feedback: DR  The effector adds to the initial stimulus instead of negating it, speeding up the process. – Labor contraction is the example of positive feedback system. – Labor contractions force baby’s head or body into birth canal. – It produces effect on control condition and increases distention of cervix of uterus. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 4  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL – It activates the stretch receptors of cervix and send input message to control center via sensory nerve impulse. – Control center activates the hypothalamus and pituitary gland and send the output message to increase oxytocin secretion in blood. – Oxytocin produces their effect on to the effector (cervix of uterus) and cause distention of cervix of uterus than the normal value to push the baby further into birth canal. I – ED Birth of the baby decreases distention of cervix of uterus and interrupts positive feedback cycle. BODY CAVITIES AND SEROUS MEMBRANES IV  The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and TR I other structures that separate compartments. & ED  The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body D compartments. IV  These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows IK for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their TR functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and IT contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs. N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 5  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities.  In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. The anterior (ventral) cavity has divided by the diaphragm muscle into 2 parts: 1. A superior thoracic cavity, containing the I A. Pleural cavity (left and right, divided by the mediastinum) organs: lungs ED membranes: visceral and parietal pleura B. Pericardial cavity organs: heart membranes: visceral and parietal pericardium IV 2. Inferior abdominopelvic cavity, containing the A. Peritoneal cavity membranes: visceral and parietal peritoneum TR I B. Abdominal cavity (superior peritoneal) organs: liver, stomach, spleen, intestine & ED C. Pelvic cavity (inferior peritoneal) organs: intestine, bladder, reproductive organs D Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity: IV  The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs are covered IK with a thin, double layered membrane – serosa or serous membranes.  TR Part of the membrane lining the cavity walls - parietal serosa -folds on itself to form IT the visceral serosa which covers the organs in the cavity. N. NA – Parietal - "parie"- means wall – Visceral - "viscus"- means an organ in a body cavity A. AM BODY FLUIDS: DR Water content of the body is divided into: UP 1. Intracellular compartment (67%) - Inside the cell 2. Extracellular compartment (33%) - Outside the cell. 1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF) DR  Comprises, 2/3 of the body water.  If body has 60% water, ICF is about 40% of your weight.  The ICF is primarily a solution of potassium and organic anions, proteins etc.  The cell membranes and cellular metabolism control the constituents of this ICF. 2. Extracellular compartment (ECF):  It is the remaining 1/3 of your body's water. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 6  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  ECF is about 20% of the body weight.  The ECF is primarily a NaCl and NaHCO3 solution.  The ECF is further subdivided into three sub-compartments: A. Interstitial Fluid (ISF). B. Plasma. C. Transcellular fluid A. Interstitial Fluid (ISF)  Interstitial Fluid (ISF) surrounds the cells, but does not circulate.  I It is the main component of the extracellular fluid ED  It comprises about 3/4 of the ECF.  Interstitial fluid is found in the interstitial spaces, also known as the tissue spaces. Composition of interstitial fluid: IV  Water solvent amino acids  Neurotransmitters TR I &  Sugars  Salts ED  Fatty acids  Waste products from the cells. D  Coenzymes  Lymph is considered a part of the interstitial IV  Hormones fluid IK TR Function of interstitial fluid IT  Intercellular communication.  Interstitial fluid bathes the cells of the tissues. N. NA  Removal of metabolic waste. B. Plasma: A  It is the yellow liquid component of blood in which the blood cells in whole blood are. AM DR normally suspended  55% of the total blood volume. UP  It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid (all body fluid outside of cells)  It makes up about 1/4 of the ECF.. Composition of plasma DR  Water (90% by volume)  Mineral ions  Dissolved proteins  Hormones  Glucose  Carbon dioxide.  Clotting factors Function of plasma  Plasma is the main medium for excretory product transportation. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 7  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  Blood serum is blood plasma without fibrinogen or the other clotting factors (i.e., whole blood minus both the cells and the clotting factors). C. Transcellular fluid  Transcellular fluid is the portion of total body water contained within epithelial lined spaces.  Smallest compartment.  It is about 2.5% of the total body water. I ED Examples – Cerebrospinal fluid – Ocular fluid (Aqueous humor) IV – Joint fluid (Synovial fluid) TR I – Urine & ED Composition of transcellular fluid: D 1. Cerebrospinal fluid: IV – The CSF is mainly produced by the choroid plexus. IK – The entire nervous system contains between 80-150 ml of CSF. – TR It is a clear colorless liquid that contains White blood cells, glucose, protein, IT lactic acid, urea, cations (Na+, K+, Ca+ etc) and anions (Cl-, and HCO3-). N. NA 2. Ocular fluid (Aqueous humor): – The aqueous humor is a transparent, gelatinous fluid similar to plasma. – It is located in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, the space A. between the lens and the cornea. AM DR – It contains Amino acids (transported by cilliary muscles), 98% water, UP Electrolytes, Ascorbic acid, Glutathione 3. Joint fluid (Synovial fluid): – Synovial fluid is clear, pale yellow, viscid, and does not clot.. – The principal role of synovial fluid is to reduce friction between thearticular DR cartilage of synovial joints during movement. – It contains Normal 3–4 mg/ml hyaluronic acid, a polymer of disaccharides, WBC, RBC and proteins 4. Urine: – Urine is a typically sterile liquid by product of the body secreted by the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 8  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL – It contains 95% water, Organic solutes like urea, creatinine, uric acid, and trace amounts of enzymes, carbohydrates, hormones, fatty acids, pigments, and mucins, and inorganic ions such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl- ), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), ammonium (NH4+), sulfates (SO42-), and phosphates (e.g., PO43-). SOME DEFINITIONS RELATED TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY SUBJECT: I ED CELL: It is living structural and functional units of body enclosed by membrane. CYTOLOGY: It is the branch of science concern with the study of cells. IV TISSUE: It is a group of cells that usually have common embryonic origin and function together for special activities. TR BLOOD: It is a liquid connective tissue I & ED LYMPH: It is a thin, watery, clear, modified tissue fluid formed by the passage of substance D from the blood capillaries into the tissue space (interstitial space) and enters in to the closed IV system of lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic vessels and lymphatic sinus. IK CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: Cardiovascular is the system which includes the study of the heart, blood vessels and blood. TR IT IMMUNE SYSTEM: It is the collection of cells, tissues and molecules that protects the body N. from numerous pathogenic microbes and toxins in our environment. NA A. AM DR UP. DR SIGNATURE OF TEACHER https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 9  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT NO.: 2 DATE: AIM: TO STUDY THE USE AND CARE OF MICROSCOPE. INTRODUCTION: Types of microscope: 1. Microscopes used in clinical practice are light microscopes. They are called light microscopes because they use a beam of light to view specimens. I 2. A compound light microscope is the most common microscope used in microbiology. ED It consists of two lens systems (combination of lenses) to magnify the image. Each lens IV has a different magnifying power. A compound light microscope with a single eye- piece is called monocular; one with two eye-pieces is said to be binocular. TR 3. Microscopes that use a beam of electrons (instead of a beam of light) and I & electromagnets (instead of glass lenses) for focusing are called electron microscopes. ED These microscopes provide a higher magnification and are used for observing D IV extremely small microorganisms such as viruses. IK PARTS OF MICROSCOPE: TR The main parts of the microscope are the eye-pieces, microscope tube, nosepiece, objective, IT mechanical stage, condenser, coarse and fine focusing knobs, and light source. N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 10  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL COMPOUND MICROSCOPE PARTS - A high power or compound microscope achieves higher levels of magnification than a stereo or low power microscope. It is used to view smaller specimens such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of magnification. These key microscope parts are illustrated and explained below. A. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS 1. Base (foot): It is U or horseshoe-shaped metallic structure that supports the whole I ED microscope. 2. Pillar: It is a short upright part that connects to base as well as arm. IV 3. Arm (Limb): It is a curved metallic handle that connects with the arm by inclination joint. It supports stage and body tube. TR 4. Inclination Joint: It is used for tilting the microscope if required for observation in I & ED sitting position. D 5. Stage: It is a metallic platform with a central hole fitted to the lower part of the arm. IV Microscopic slides held on the stage by either simple side clips or by a mechanical stage IK clip. TR 6. Body tube: It is meant for holding ocular and objective lenses at its two ends. The end IT holding ocular lens is called head while the end containing 3-4 objective lens is called N. nose piece. The body tube has an internal pathway for the passage of light rays which NA form the enlarged image or microscopic objects. 7. Draw tube: It is a small tube that remains fixed at the upper end of the body tube. It A. holds eyepiece or ocular lens. AM DR 8. Rack and pinion: The microscope has a rack and pinion attached either to body tube UP or the stage for bringing the object under focus. 9. Adjustment screws: There are two pairs of screws for moving the body tube in relation to stage, larger for coarse adjustment and smaller for fine adjustment. In fine adjustment. the body tube or stages moves for extremely short distances. In coarse adjustment the DR body tube or stage can move up and distance. In coarse adjustment is meant for briefly objective lens at a proper distance from the object so as to form image of the same at the ocular end. Fine adjustment is required to obtain sharp image. 10. Automatic Stop: It is a small screw fitted at lower end or rack and pinion. It is meant for stopping the downward sliding of the body tube so as to prevent the damage of objective lens and the slide. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 11  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL B. OPTICAL COMPONENTS 1. Diaphragm: It is flitted just below the stage for regulating the amount of light failing on the object. Diaphragm is of two types, disc and iris. 2. Condenser: It is attached below the diaphragm. Condenser can be moved up and down to focus light on the object. 3. Reflector (Mirror): It is attached just above the base. Both its surface bear mirrors, plane on one side and concave on other side. Plane side is used in strong light and I ED concave side in weak light. Reflector directs the light on the object through the condenser and diaphragm system. IV 4. Objective Lenses: They are fitted over the nose piece. Objective lenses are of three types – low power (commonly 10X or 5X), high power (commonly 45X) and oil TR immersion (commonly 100X, can be more). I & ED 5. Ocular Lens or Eyepiece: It is lens through which image of the microscopic object is D observed. It also takes part in magnification. Depending upon magnification, the eye IV piece is of four types-5X, 10X, 15X, and 20 X. IK USE AND CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE - TR Always keep the microscope clean, dust free and covered. Clear space on the bench IT before getting the microscope from the cabinet N. - Grasp the microscope with two hands – one on the arm and the other under the base NA - When you remove the microscope from the cabinet, do it slowly and carefully - Remove the dust cover and store it in the scope cabinet A. - Verify that the MIRROR is set for minimum light. Concave mirror is used while using AM DR low power lens and the plane mirror is used while using high power or oil immersion UP lens. Adjust the mirror such that the maximum and even illumination is obtained. - Lower the stage (or raise head) - Check that the CONDENSER is flush with the stage and the iris diaphragm is open. - Using the knurled nose ring, rotate and click the shortest. DR - Load a slide, being sure it sits flat on the stage, held by the spring clip - While looking into the eyepieces, slowly turn the coarse knob, moving lens closer to stage. As soon as you see a hint of color, switch to the small, fine focus knob and focus the object. Close one eye at a time to compare images. - Once the slide is perfectly focused and the image is centered on low power, use the knurled nosepiece to click the next larger lens into place. DO NOT USE THE https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 12  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL COARSE FOCUS KNOB after increasing magnification. Only use the fine focus knob to focus with a higher power lens. - If you cannot find the image when you increase the magnification, go back to 4X and start again. I ED IV TR I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR SIGNATURE OF TEACHER https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 13  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT NO.: 3 DATE: AIM: TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF EPITHELIAL AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE. DEFINITION: “It is a group of cells that usually have common embryonic origin and function together for special activities.” INTRODUCTION: I Body tissues can be classified in to four principal types according to their function and ED structure: 1) Epithelia tissue: IV  It cover body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavity and ducts.  It also forms glands. TR 2) Connective tissue: I &  It provides the supports and protects the body and its organs. ED  It binds organs together.  It store energy as reserved fat. D  It provides immunity. IV 3) Muscle tissue: IK  It is responsible for movements and generation of force. 4) Nervous tissue: TR IT  It initiates and transmits action potential (Nerves Impulse) that helps coordinate body activities. N. NA During the embryonic developments zygote produces three germ layers: a) Ectoderm A b) Endoderm and. AM DR c) Mesoderm. These three are embryonic tissue from which all tissues and organs of the body develop. UP  Epithelium tissue derived from all three layers.  Connective tissue and most muscles tissue derived from mesoderm.  Nervous tissue derived from ectoderm. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 14  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE: General future of epithelial tissue:  It consist large and closely packed cells with little extracellular material between adjacent cells.  It’s arrangement produce continues sheet which is either single layer or multi layers.  Epithelial cells have an apical (free) surface, which produce the lining of internal organ so it exposed in to a body cavity. I  ED The basal surface of the epithelial cells attached with the basement membrane.  Epithelial cells are avascular so the blood vessels that supply to nutrients and move IV wastes are located in adjacent connective tissue.  The material exchanges take place in epithelium by the diffusion process. TR  Epithelium cells are adheres to connective tissue which holds the epithelium in their I & ED position.  D The junction between the epithelium and connective tissue is known as basement IV membrane which consist two layers. IK 1. Basal lamina: contain collagen, laminin and proteoglycan secret by epithelium. TR 2. Reticular lamina: This contains reticular fibers, fibronectin and glycoproteins. IT  The main function of epithelium is protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion, N. digestion, absorption, transportation, sensory reception and reproduction. NA  CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE: A. AM DR UP. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 15  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL I ED 1) Covering and lining epithelium:  IV It forms the superficial layer of the skin and some internal organ.  TR It forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities and the interior of the I & respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems. ED  According to arrangements of layer it is classified in to three types: D I) Simple epithelium: IV  It is a single layer of cells. IK TR  It founds where activities such as diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion and absorption IT occurs.  According to shape of the cells it is further divided in to: N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR a) Simple squamous Epithelium:  It is a flat in shape.  This consists of a single layer of flat cells.  Their surfaces look like as tiles floor.  The nucleolus of each cell is oval or spherical shape. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 16  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It follows the osmosis or diffusion process.  It found in the body where the little wear and tear is found.  It lines the hearts, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and also forms the wall of capillary known as endothelium.  The cells which form the epithelial layer of serous membrane are known as mesothelium. b) Simple cuboidal epithelium: I  ED It is cuboidal in shape.  The nucleus of the cell is round.  IV The main function of this tissue is absorption and secretion. c) Simple columnar epithelium: TR  It is rectangular in shape. I & ED  It consist oval nuclei.  D It mainly produces two forms: IV i) Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium: IK  It contains microvilli and goblet cells.  TR Microvilli produce the microscopic fingerlike structure which increases the IT surface area of plasma membrane. N.  Goblet cells secret mucus which is slightly sticky fluid. NA ii) Celiated simple columnar cells:  Celia produces the hairlike processes means it’s movement gives the motion. A.  Eg.: Secondary oocyte moves toward fallopian tube for fertilization by or fertile AM DR ovum down the uterin tube to the uterus help of celia. UP. DR II) Stratified Epithelium: https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 17  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It contains two or more layers.  It protects the underline tissues from where there is considerable tear and wear.  According to shape it can be further classified as under: a) Stratified squemous epithelium:  In the superficial layer this type of cells are flat whereas in the deep layers cells vary in shape from cuboidal to columnar.  Here, the basal cells continuously replicate by cell division and produce new cells I ED which shift upward toward the surface.  So, they loss their blood supply from the connective tissue so they become IV dehydrated, shrunken and harder.  These processes replace old cells by new cells. TR  Stratified squemous epithelium exists in two forms: I & ED i) Keratinized stratified squemous epithelium:  D It consist tough layer of keratin. IV  It is a protein which is water proof and prevents us from several bacterial IK attacks. ii) Non keratinized stratified squemous epithelium: TR IT  It does not contain keratin and remains moist. N. NA b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium:  It consist two or more layer of cells in which superficial cells are cube-shaped. A  Duct of adult sweat glands and part of male urethra consist these cells.. AM DR  The main function is to give protection. c) Stratified columnar epithelium: UP  It consist several layer of polyhedral cells.  Only the superficial cells are columnar. . Conjunctiva of eye, anal mucous membrane, urethra consist these cells. DR  It gives protection and secretion. c) Transitional epithelium:  Its appearance is variable mainly it depends either it is stretched or relaxed. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 18  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  Its line the urinary bladder and portion of ureters and urethra. I ED IV TR I & ED III) Pseudostratified epithelium: D  It contains mixture of cells in one layer. IV  It produces multilayered tissue like appearance because all cells nuclei not reach to the IK surface of cells. These type of cells either ciliated or secrete mucus. TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR 2) Glandular epithelium:  These types of cells are mainly present in gland the main function of these cells is secretion.  There are two types of secretary gland: a) exocrine:  It secret their product in to duct. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 19  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  The secretion includes mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax and digestive enzymes.  Eg.: Sweat glands, Salivary glands.  According to structure it is divided into two classes: i) unicellular ii) multi cellular  According to function it is divided in to: I ED i) Merocrine glands: it forms the secretary product and discharge it. (salivary glands) IV ii) Apocrine glands: accumulate their secretary product on their apical surface. (mammary glands). TR iii) Halocrine glands: accumulate secretary product in cytosol. (Sebaceous gland). I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA b) endocrine glands: A.  Secret product in to blood. AM DR  Eg.: pituitary glands, thyroid gland. UP. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 20  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE: “It is the tissue which provide supports and strength of the other body tissues, protect and insults internal organs also it binds the other cells or tissue together. Classification of Connective tissue I ED IV TR I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 21  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE Tissue Type Cells Present Fibers Present Matrix Characteristics Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar Fibroblasts macrophages Collagen elastic Loosely arranged fibers in gelatinous ground adipocytes mast cells reticular substance plasma cells Adipose Adipocytes Reticular collagen Closely packed cells with a small amount of gelatinous ground substance; stores fat Reticular Reticular cells Reticular Loosely arranged fibers in gelatinous ground I substance ED Dense Connective Tissue: Dense regular Fibroblasts Collagen (some elastic) Parallel-arranged bundles of fibers with few cells and little ground substance; great Dense regular Fibroblasts IV Collagen (some elastic) tensile strength Irregularly arranged bundles of fibers with TR few cells and little ground substance; high I & tensile strength ED Cartilage: Hyaline (gristle) Chondrocytes Collagen (some elastic) Limited ground substance; dense, semisolid D matrix IV Fibrocartilage Chondrocytes Collagen (some elastic) Limited ground intermediate between hyaline IK cartilage and dense connective tissue TR Elastic Chondrocytes Elastic Limited ground substance; flexible but firm matrix IT Bone (osseous tissue): Compact Osteoblasts osteocytes Collagen Rigid, calcified ground substance with (canal N. NA (dense) systems) Spongy Osteoblasts osteocytes Collagen Rigid, calcified ground substance (no (cancellous) osteons) Blood & Lymph (vascular tissue): A. Blood Erythrocytes leukocytes “Fibers” are soluble “Matrix” is liquid blood plasma AM DR thrombocytes proteins that form during clotting “Fibers” are soluble “Matrix” is blood plasma UP Lymph Leukocytes liquid proteins that form during clotting. 1) Embryonic Connective Tissue: DR  It is primarily present in the embryo or fetus.  The term embryo used for developing human from fertilization through the first two months of pregnancy.  The term Fetus used for developing human from the third month of pregnancy to birth.  It is mainly divided in to two types: a) Mesenchyme:  It forms all kind of connective tissue. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 22  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It is composed by irregularly shaped mesenchymal cells, a semisolid ground substance and delicate reticular fibers. b) Mucous connective tissue:  It is primarily found in umbilical cord of the fetus.  It also forms from the Mesenchyme.  It contains star shaped cells, a more viscous and jelly like ground substance and collagen fibers. I ED 2) Mature connective tissue:  It exists in new born baby.  IV It, form from Mesenchyme and does not change after the birth. TR  It is sub divided in to: I & ED a) Loose connective tissue:  D Here the fibers are loosely woven. IV It consists: IK i) Areolar connective tissue:  It is the most widely connective tissue. TR IT  It consist several types of cells like as fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, N. mast cells and a few white blood cells. NA  All three type of fibers – collagens, elastic and reticular.  The fluid, semi fluids or gelatinous ground substance contains hyluronic acid, A. chondrotin sulfate, dermatan sulfate and keratin sulfate. AM DR  It located in subcutaneous layer of skin, papillary region of dermis of skin, UP mucous membrane, blood vessels, nerve and around body organ.  It provides strength, elasticity and support. ii) Adipose tissue:.  The cells of adipose tissue contain a fatty substance and they are large and round DR in shape.  It consists adipocytes cells that are specialized to store triglyceride (Fat and oil). It is located in subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart, kidney, yellow bone marrow of long bone and behind the eye ball sockets.  The main functions of these tissues are reduce heat loss through skin, serve as energy reserve, provides supports and protection. iii) Reticular connective tissue: https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 23  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It consists fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular fibers.  It forms the framework of certain organs and helps to bind together certain cells. b) Dense Connective tissue:  It consists more numerous, thicker and densely packed fibers.  It further divided in to: i) Dense regular connective tissue:  Here, the bundle of collagen fibers regular and parallel arrangements which gives I ED great strength.  The tissue is silvery white and tough. ii) Dense irregular connective tissue:IV  It consists collagen fibers that are usually irregularly arranged. TR  Heart valves, pericardium consists this type of tissue. I & ED iii) Elastic connective tissue:  D It consist branched elastic fibers. IV  It provides strength and can be stretched. IK c) Cartilage:  It is hard but elastic in nature. TR IT  It consist elastic and collagen fibers. N. NA  There are three types of cartilage: i) Hyaline cartilage: A.  It provides the supports and flexibility, reduce the friction and absorb the shock AM DR at joints.  UP Cartilage cells are large, arranged in group of 2 and 4.  It’s mostly found in bones and ribs. ii) Fibro cartilage:.  It consists large cells which are arranged in groups. DR  The collagen fibers are more than hyaline cartilage.  It is found in inner vertebral discs, in knee joins. iii) Elastic Cartilage:  It consist elastic fiber in matrix.  Mostly found in laryngeal cartilages, epiglottis and in Eustachian tube. d) Bone tissue:  Together cartilage, joints and bone comprise the skeletal system. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 24  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It is the hardest connective tissue.  It consists two types of bone cells osteoclasts and osteoblasts.  Bone tissue is mainly divided in to two types compact bone and spongy bone.  Long bones are the examples of compact bones and spongy bones are flats at the end of long bones.  The main function of bones are it provide support, protection, assists in movement, site of blood cell production, storage of energy. I ED e) Blood (Vascular tissue):  Blood is a liquid connective tissue.  IV It consist mainly formed elements like platelets, leukocytes, erythrocytes and plasma consist protein, water and other solutes. TR  The man function of blood tissue is transportation, regulation and protection. I & ED f) Lymph:  D “Lymph is a thin, watery, clear, modified tissue fluid formed by the passage of IV substance from the blood capillaries into the tissue space (interstitial space) and enters IK in to the closed system of lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic vessels and lymphatic sinus known as lymphatic system.” TR IT  In short the lymphatic system consists the fluid is known as lymphatic fluid. N.  NA Interstitial fluid and lymphatic fluid are basically same, only the different in their location. When it is located between tissue spaces it is known as interstitial fluid and when it goes in to lymphatic vessels it known as lymph. A. AM DR UP. DR SIGNATURE OF TEACHER https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 25  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT NO.: 4 DATE: AIM: TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS TISSUE. 3. MUSCULAR TISSUE:  Muscles cells consist fibers that are beautifully constructed and generate I force for constriction. ED  As a result of constriction power it provides motion, maintains posture and IV TR generates heat. I &  Based on location, function and structure it is divided in to three types: ED 1) Skeletal muscles tissue: D  IV Its name shows its location means attached to bone.  It is strait in nature, fiber contain light and dark band which is known as striation which IK TR are visible in microscope. IT  A single skeletal muscles fiber is very long, roughly cylindrical in shape and has more than one nuclei which are periphery of the cells. N. NA  Skeletal muscles are voluntary in nature because it can be contracted and relaxed below the conscious level. 2) Cardiac muscles tissue: A.  They are in bulk form and produce wall of the heart. AM DR  Like skeletal muscles it is striated but it is involuntary in nature means constriction in UP not under the control of conscious level.  The fibers are branched and cross sections are squares in shape.  Centrally it contain one nuclei and cardiac muscles fibers attached end to end by one. another and the joint is known as intercalated disc which form welding like spot DR between cells. 3) Smooth muscles tissue:  It is located in the wall of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, air ways to the lungs, intestines, gallbladders and urinary bladders.  It provides help in breakdown of foods, elimination of wastage and move fluid and food throughout body.  It is involuntary in control. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 26  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL 4. NERVOUS TISSUE I ED IV TR I & ED  It consist of the two principle kinds of cells D 1) Neurons: IV  The neurons consists of three basic portion : IK a) Cell body:  TR Cell body contains a nucleolus surrounded by cytoplasm that includes typical IT organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria and Golgi complex. N.  NA In the cytoplasm it also contains the Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) which is ordinary arrangement of endoplasmic reticulum, the site of protein synthesis and it also contain neurofibrils which forms the cytoskeleton and provide A. the support and shape of the cells. AM DR b) Dendrites: UP  Dendrites are the receiving or input portion of the neurons.  They are usually short, tapering and highly branched.  Usually dendrites are not mylinated..  Their cytoplasm contains chromatophilic substance, mitochondria and other DR organelles. c) Axon:  It is a long, thin and cylindrical in shape.  It is joined with cell body by axon hillock.  The first portion of axon is known as initial segment where the nerves impulse are arise. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 27  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It also contains mitochondria, microtubules and neurofbrils but no rough endoplasmic reticulum so it does not synthesize protein.  Its cytoplasm known as axoplasm which is surrounded by membrane known as axolema.  The side branch of axon is known as axon collaterals.  At the end of axon it divides branch like structure known as axon terminals.  The tip of some axon terminals swell in to bulb shaped known as synaptic end bulbs. I ED IV TR I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR  Classification of neurons:  According to functional classification it is divided in to: UP i) Sensory neurons or afferent neurons:  It transmits nerve impulse from receptors of skin, sense organ, muscles, and joints. into the CNS. DR ii) Motor or Efferent Neurons:  It conveys motor nerve impulse from the CNS to the effectors which may be either muscles or glands. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 28  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL I ED IV TR I & ED D IV  According to structural it can be classified in to: IK i) Multi polar neurons: TR  It has several dendrites and one axon. IT  Most neurons of brain and spinal cord are of this type. ii) Bipolar neurons: N. NA  It has one main dendrites and one axon.  It is found in the eye, inner ear and olfactory areas of the brain. A. iii) Unipolar neurons: AM DR  It’s originated as bipolar neurons in the embryo but during the development axon and body get fuse into a single process that divides in to two branch and consist one UP cell body.  It is always sensory neurons.. DR https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 29  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL I ED IV TR I & ED D IV 2) Neuralgia: IK  Neuroglia or glia fills about half of the CNS.  TR Its have the glue like characteristics so it held nervous tissue together. IT  Neuroglias are generally smaller than neurons. N.  NA Neuroglia can multiply and divide in the mature nervous systems.  Classification of Neuroglia:  There are mainly six types of Neuroglia in which four astrocytes, olegodendrocytes, A. microglia and ependymal cells are found in the CNS. AM DR  While neurolemmocytes (schwann cells) and satellite cells found in peripheral UP nervous system. a) Neuroglia found in CNS: i) Astrocytes:.  They are star shaped. DR  It produces the metabolism of neurotransmitters, maintain the proper balance of K+ for generation of nerves impulse, and participate in brain development.  It forms the blood brain barrier which regulates entry of substance in to the brain. ii) Olegodendrocytes:  It is the most common glial Cells in the CNS.  It is smaller than astrocytes. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 30  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  They coil around neurons and produce supporting structure to the neurons.  It produces protein and lipid covering known as myelin sheath. iii) Microglia:  It is the small and phagocytic Neuroglia derived from monocytes.  They protect the CNS from the disease by engulfing invading microbes and clearing away debris from dead cells. iv) Ependymal: I  ED It is the epithelial cells.  The cells have different shaped from cuboidal to columnar and many are ciliated.  IV Ependymal cells line the fluid filled ventricles, cavity within the brain and central canal means a narrow passage from spinal cord. TR  It forms the fluid which is known as cerebrospinal fluids. I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR b) Neuroglia found in peripheral nervous system: UP i) Neurolemmocytes (schwann cells):  Each cell produces myelin sheath around PNS Neurons. ii) Satellite cells:.  DR Which supports neurons in ganglia in PNS. Myelination:  The axons of most mammalian neurons are surrounded by a multilayered lipids and proteins of Neuroglia and this covering is known as myelin sheath and the axon with such a covering are said to be a myelinated.  Whereas those without covering are known as unmyelinated axon. https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 31  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  The sheath electrically insulates the axon of neurons and increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction. Two types of Neuroglia produce myelin sheath: a) Neurolemmocytes in PNS. b) Olgodendrocytes in CNS.  Myelination and unmyelination produce Grey matter and white matter in brain and spinal cord. I  ED White matter refers to aggregations of myelinated process from many neurons. The whites colour of myelin gives white matter.  IV The grey matters of nervous system contain either neuron cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals or bundles of unmyelinated axons and Neuroglia. TR  In spinal cord the white matter surrounds inner core of gray matter shaped like I & ED a butterfly or the letter H.  D In the brain grey matter surrounds the outer region while white matter surround IV inner region of brain exactly opposite to spinal cord. IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR  Function of Nervous tissue: a) Sensory function:  It sense certain changes both within body (the internal environment) such as stretching of your stomach or increase the acidity and outside the body (the external environment) such as rain drop landing on your arm or the aroma of rose. b) Integrative Function: https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 32  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL  It analyzes the sensory information, store some aspect and make some decision regarding appropriate behavior. c) Motor function:  It may respond to stimuli by initiating muscular contraction or glandular secretion. I ED IV TR I & ED D IV IK TR IT N. NA A. AM DR UP. DR SIGNATURE OF TEACHER https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 33  B. PH SEM – I: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT NO.: 5 DATE: AIM: TO STUDY AND INTRODUCTION OF AXIAL BONES. INTRODUCTION: Skeletal System The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex I living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. ED Components of Human Skeleton:  Bones: Bone is a tough and rigid form of connective tissue. It is the weight bearing IV organ of human body and it is responsible for almost all strength of human skeleton.  Cartilages: Cartilage is also a form of connective tissue but is not as tough and rigid as TR I & bone. The main difference in the cartilage and bone is the mineralization factor. Bones ED are highly mineralized with calcium salts while cartilages are not. D  Joints: Joints are important components of human skeleton because they make the IV human skeleton mobile. A joint occurs between “two or more bones”, “bone and IK cartilage” and “cartilage and cartilage”. Divisions of human skeleton: TR IT Axial skeleton - The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; N. NA the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). A. Appendicular skeleton - The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral AM DR girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to UP make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction. Functions of bone and skeletal system. 1. Support: The skeletal system is the structural framework of the body as well as for muscles DR and skin. 2. Protection: The skeletons protect the internal organs from any kind of external injury. 3. Movement: The skeletal system along wit