Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Introduction to Psychology 1...

Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Introduction to Psychology 1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology - scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior - outward or overt actions and reactions. Mental processes - internal, covert activity of our minds. 2 1 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology PSYCHOLOGY IS A SCIENCE Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations Precise and careful measurement 3 LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology PSYCHOLOGY’S FOUR GOALS Description What is happening? Explanation Why is it happening? Theory - general explanation of a set of observations or facts 4 2 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology PSYCHOLOGY’S FOUR GOALS Prediction Will it happen again? Control How can it be changed? 5 LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism STRUCTURALISM Structuralism Focused on structure or basic elements of the mind. 6 3 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory Germany in 1879 Developed the technique of objective introspection – process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities. 7 LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism STRUCTURALISM Edward Titchener Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America. Margaret Washburn Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Structuralism died out in early 1900s. 8 4 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism FUNCTIONALISM Functionalism How the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play. Proposed by William James. Influenced the modern fields of: Educational psychology Evolutionary psychology Industrial/organizational psychology 9 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt “good figure” psychology. Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception. Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology, a field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving. 10 5 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 F I GU R E 1. 1 A GE S T A L T P E R C E P T I ON T H E E Y E T E N D S T O “ F I L L I N ” T H E B L A N K S H E R E A N D S E E S B OT H OF T H E S E F I GU R E S A S C I R C L E S R A T H E R T H A N A S A S E R I E S OF D OT S OR A B R OK E N L I N E. 11 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychoanalysis - the theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause. Freud proposed that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires. 12 6 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism PSYCHOANALYSIS Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause. He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders. Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences. 13 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism The science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only. Must be directly seen and measured. 14 7 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism BEHAVIORISM Proposed by John B. Watson. Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned). Watson believed that phobias were learned. Case of “Little Albert” – taught to fear a white rat. 15 LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism BEHAVIORISM Mary Cover Jones an early pioneer in behavior therapy. 16 8 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Psychodynamic perspective - modern version of psychoanalysis. More focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person’s behavior than sexual motivations. 17 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Behavioral perspective B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning of voluntary behavior. Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism. 18 9 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Humanistic perspective Owes far more to the early roots of psychology in the field of philosophy. Humanists held the view that people have free will, the freedom to choose their own destiny. Early founders: Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers 19 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Humanistic perspective Emphasized the human potential, the ability of each person to become the best person he or she could be. Self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential or actual self. 20 10 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Cognitive perspective Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning. Sociocultural perspective Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture. 21 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Biopsychological perspective Attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system. 22 11 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers MODERN PERSPECTIVES Evolutionary perspective Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share. Looks at the way the mind works and why it works as it does. Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or survival value. 23 TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS Psychiatrist A medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Psychoanalyst Either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has special training in the theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis. 24 12 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS Psychiatric social worker A social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse. 25 TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS Psychologist A professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology. Can do counseling, teaching, and research and may specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology. Areas of specialization in psychology include clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others. 26 13 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 F I GU R E 1. 2 WOR K S E T T I N GS A N D S U B F I E L D S OF P S Y C H OL OGY ( A ) T H E R E A R E MA N Y D I F F E R E N T WOR K S E T T I N GS F OR P S Y C H OL OGI S T S. A L T H OU GH N OT OB V I OU S F R OM T H E C H A R T , MA N Y P S Y C H OL OGI S T S WOR K I N MOR E T H A N ON E S E T T I N G. F OR E X A MP L E , A C L I N I C A L P S Y C H OL OGI S T MA Y WOR K I N A H OS P I T A L S E T T I N G A N D T E A C H A T A U N I V E R S I T Y OR C OL L E GE. ( T S A P OGA S E T A L. , 2 0 0 6 ) ( B ) T H I S P I E C H A R T S H OWS T H E S P E C I A L T Y A R E A S OF P S Y C H OL OGI S T S WH O R E C E N T L Y R E C E I V E D T H E I R D OC T OR A T E S. ( H OF F E R E T A L. , 2 0 0 7 ) 27 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Scientific method System of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced. 28 14 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Steps in the Scientific Method: 1. Perceive the question. 2. Form a hypothesis – tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations. 3. Test the hypothesis. 4. Draw conclusions. 5. Report your results so that others can try to replicate - repeat the study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results. 29 LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Naturalistic observation Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment. Major Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior. 30 15 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Disadvantages: Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect). 31 LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Disadvantages: Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see. Blind observers – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias). Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold. 32 16 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Laboratory observation Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting. Advantages: Control over environment. Allows use of specialized equipment. 33 LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Disadvantage: Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior. Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses. 34 17 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Case study Study of one individual in great detail. Advantage: Tremendous amount of detail. Disadvantage: Cannot apply to others. Famous case study Phineas Gage. 35 LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Surveys Researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic under study. Given to a representative sample - randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects. Population The entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested. 36 18 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Advantages: Data from large numbers of people. Study covert behaviors. Disadvantages: Have to ensure representative sample (or results not meaningful). People are not always accurate (courtesy bias). 37 DESCRIPTIVE METHODS LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys Random Sampling from Population INFERENCE SAMPLE POPULATION 38 19 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.9 Correlational technique FINDING RELATIONSHIPS Correlation A measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable Anything that can change or vary. 39 LO 1.9 Correlational technique FINDING RELATIONSHIPS Correlation Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: direction of the relationship. strength of the relationship. Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. 40 20 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.9 Correlational technique FINDING RELATIONSHIPS Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. No correlation = 0.0. Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00. 41 LO 1.9 Correlational technique FINDING RELATIONSHIPS Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction. As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction. As one increases, the other decreases. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!! 42 21 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 F I GU R E 1. 3 F I V E S C A T T E R P L OT S T H E S E S C A T T E R P L OT S S H OW D I R E C T I ON A N D S T R E N GT H OF C OR R E L A T I ON. I T S H OU L D B E N OT E D T H A T P E R F E C T C OR R E L A T I ON S , WH E T H E R P OS I T I V E OR N E GA T I V E , R A R E L Y OC C U R I N T H E R E A L WOR L D. 43 LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms THE EXPERIMENT Experiment A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships. Operational definition Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured. Definition: Aggressive play 44 22 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms THE EXPERIMENT Independent variable (IV) Variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter. IV: Violent TV Dependent variable (DV) Variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment. DV: Aggressive play 45 LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms THE EXPERIMENT Experimental group Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable. Exp Group: Watch TV 46 23 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms THE EXPERIMENT Control group Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables). Control Group: No TV 47 LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms THE EXPERIMENT Random assignment Process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group. Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables. 48 24 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 THE EXPERIMENT Random Assignment Experimental Group SAMPLE Test for Differences Control Group 49 THE EXPERIMENT LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms Confounding Variables Experimental Group Are differences due to manipulation SAMPLE or confounding variable (mood)? Control Group 50 25 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 THE EXPERIMENT LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms No Confounding Variables Experimental Group Differences due to manipulation, not SAMPLE an extraneous variable because mood randomly determined. Control Group 51 LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects THE EXPERIMENT Placebo effect The phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior. Single-blind study Subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect). 52 26 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects THE EXPERIMENT Experimenter effect Tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study. Double-blind study Neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect). 53 LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects THE EXPERIMENT Quasiexperimental designs Not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups (for example, if age is the variable of interest). 54 27 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment EXAMPLE OF A REAL EXPERIMENT Hypothesis: Extrinsic (external) reward would reduce creativity. Independent variable Two different sets of instructions. Dependent variable Creativity on art project as judged by raters blind to the group assignment. 55 LO 1.12 Conducting a real experiment EXAMPLE OF A REAL EXPERIMENT Experimental group Instructed to make project to compete for an award (prizes). Control group Instructed to make project for fun; prizes would be raffled off. Results supported hypothesis: Those competing for extrinsic reward were less creative. 56 28 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Ethics committees Groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over each proposed research study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in the study. 57 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Common ethical guidelines: Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation. Deception must be justified. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time. 58 29 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Common ethical guidelines: Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks. Investigator must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results. Data must remain confidential. 59 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Common ethical guidelines: If for any reason a study results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or correcting, these consequences. 60 30 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Animal research Answers questions we could never do with human research. Focus is on avoiding exposing them to unnecessary pain or suffering. Animals are used in approximately 7% of psychological studies. 61 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH These rabbits are part of a drug-testing study. Their bodies are enclosed in the metal cases to prevent movement during the test. What steps might the researchers using these animals take to treat the animals ethically? 62 31 Introduction to Psychology 9/3/21 LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinking Making reasoned judgments about claims. 63 LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking CRITICAL THINKING Four Basic Criteria: 1. There are very few “truths” that do not need to be subjected to testing. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. 64 32