Cross-Cultural Communication - Chapter 1 PDF

**CHAPTER 1** **WHAT IS CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION?** **1. Influence of various disciplines on cultural studies** - **Cross-cultural communication** is about the way **people** from **different cultures** **communicate** when they deal with each other either at a distance or face to f...

**CHAPTER 1** **WHAT IS CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION?** **1. Influence of various disciplines on cultural studies** - **Cross-cultural communication** is about the way **people** from **different cultures** **communicate** when they deal with each other either at a distance or face to face. - **Cross-cultural communication** is a multifaceted subject which **has** **elements** **from** a number of disciplines including **anthropology, linguistics, philosophy and psychology**. - These disciplines also **influence** the study of cross-cultural communication. 1. **How anthropology influences communication** \* Anthropology is the [study](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/study) of the [human](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/human) [race](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/race), [its](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/its) [culture](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/culture) and [society](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/society), and [its](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/its) [physical](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/physical) [development](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/development). **Understanding cultural context:** Anthropology helps us recognize how **cultural norms, beliefs, and values** shape communication **styles and expectations** - E.g.: In **Western cultures**, direct and honest communication is often valued. However, in many **Asian cultures**, maintaining harmony and avoiding conflict is prioritized. (If you are working with a Japanese partner, directly criticizing their work might be seen as disrespectful and damage the relationship) **Analyzing nonverbal cues:** Anthropologists study **body language, facial expressions,** and other **nonverbal cues** to understand **deeper meaning** in communication. - E.g.: In many cultures (**Western countries**: The US, the UK, Canada **** **African countries** **/** **Latin American countries**: Brazil and Mexico ), direct eye contact is seen as a sign of respect. However, in some cultures (**Asian countries**: Japan, China, Korea, and Thailand / **Middle Eastern countries:** Saudi Arabia and Iran ), avoiding direct eye contact with elders or people of higher status is considered polite. \*(It\'s important to note that these are **generalizations**. Cultural norms can vary within countries and even among different regions or social groups.) **Examining language and meaning:** Linguistic anthropology explores how language **reflects** **and shapes** culture, influencing communication patterns. - E.g.: In Vietnamese, there are **many terms** to express respect for elders (bác, chú, cô, dì\...). This reflects the culture of respecting elders in Vietnamese society. In contrast, in some other languages, age distinctions in communication may be **less pronounced** (I-you). **Promoting intercultural understanding:** Anthropology fosters **empathy and appreciation** for diverse cultures, leading to more **inclusive and respectful** communication. - E.g.: By learning about the customs and values of other cultures, we can avoid misunderstandings and build better relationships with people from different backgrounds. **Anthropology** plays an **important role** in communication. It helps us understand how people from different cultures communicate effectively, avoiding misunderstandings. **Perception:** The way we **interpret information**: Our unique experiences and beliefs influence how we perceive messages. - E.g.: A person raised in a culture that values directness might misinterpret indirect communication (like hinting) as evasive. **Cognition:** The way we **process and understand information**: Our **cognitive abilities**, like memory and attention, affect how we communicate. - E.g.: Someone with a poor memory might struggle to recall important details during a conversation. **Emotions:** The way we **feel and express** ourselves: Emotions influence our tone of **voice**, **body language**, and choice of **words**. - E.g.: A person feeling angry might communicate in a more assertive or aggressive manner. **Personality:** How individual **traits and characteristics**: Personality affects how we communicate, including our **communication style and preferences**. - E.g.: An extrovert might be more comfortable speaking in public than an introvert. **Society:** The way we **interact** with others: Social psychology explains how **group dynamics, social norms, and cultural factors** influence communication. - E.g.: In a culture where there is a class division, communication might be more formal and deferential. **Critical Thinking:** Philosophical inquiry encourages critical thinking, leading to more **informed and nuanced** communication. - E.g.: Questioning assumptions and evaluating evidence before forming an opinion. **Ethics:** Ethical principles guide **respectful and empathetic** communication. - E.g.: Listening actively to others without interrupting and avoiding offensive language. **Understanding Perspectives:** Philosophical explorations of being and existence help us **understand** **different viewpoints**. - E.g.: Considering the cultural background of others when communicating. **Logic:** Logical reasoning helps us **structure** arguments **effectively**. - E.g.: Using clear language and avoiding fallacies in communication. **Effective Communication Strategies:** They provide **insights** into persuasive communication. - E.g.: Using storytelling and emotional appeals to connect with your audience. - E.g.: In English, **\"I eat apples\"** is grammatically correct, while **\"Apples eat I\"** is not. **Semantics:** **Meaning** of words and sentences: Semantics deals with the meaning of linguistic units and how they **combine** to **form** larger meanings. - E.g.: The word **\"bank\"** can have different meanings in different contexts (e.g., **financial institution, river bank**). **Pragmatics:** **Contextual** meaning: Pragmatics considers how context affects the interpretation of language, including **social cues, cultural norms, and speaker\'s intentions**. - E.g.: In English, saying **\"Can you pass me the salt?**\" is a polite request, not a question about one\'s ability. **Cultural Influences:** Language and culture: Language **reflects and shapes culture**, influencing communication styles and values. - E.g.: In many **Asian cultures**, indirect communication and politeness are highly valued. (Japan) **Dialects and Accents:** Regional **variations**: Dialects and accents can affect how language is **pronounced** and **understood**. - E.g.: A person from **the southern United States** might pronounce the word **\"car\"** differently than someone from **the northern United States**. The **key influences** are the study of **semiotics**, the study of **signs**, and the study of the **relationship** between **language and thought** and **language and culture**. **2. How linguistics influences communication?** **2.1. Semiotics** - **Semiotics** was introduced by the Swiss linguist **Ferdinand de Saussure** (1857--1913). - **Semiotics** is defined as **'the study of signs and symbols and their use in interpretation'** (Oxford English Dictionary) - Saussure developed **the theory** that **any linguistic item** such as a word **represents a sign**. **What is a sign ?** - **3 basic characteristics**: has a concrete form - The **physical for**m of a sign he called the **'signifier'**. - The **mental association** it refers to is the **'signified'**. E.g.: The word \"dog\" is a **sign**. Its physical form (the letters \"d\", \"o\", \"g\") is the **signifier**. It refers to the concept of a dog (four-legged canine animal), which is the **signified**. E.g.: Image: A picture of a cat Signifier: The visual representation of a cat Signified: The concept of a cat (four-legged feline animal) E.g.: Gesture: Waving goodbye Signifier: The physical motion of waving Signified: The intention of saying goodbye **2.2. Language and thought** ***'*Which came first, language or thought?'** - **Edward Sapir** and his pupil **Benjamin-Lee Whorf** developed **the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.** - **Franz Boas** concluded that: 'The **peculiar characteristics of languages** are clearly **reflected** in the **views** and **customs** of the people of the world' (Boas, 1938: 31) - **Noam Chomsky (1975): supports** the existence of **linguistic universals**, but **rejects** the existence of **cultural universals.** - **Lena Boroditsky (2001**) maintains that there is a **symbiotic relationship** between **language** and **the way we think** about culture, with each constantly influencing the other It is clear that **sharing a language** implies **sharing a culture** - E.g.: People who speak the same language often share similar cultural values, customs, and traditions (People who speak Spanish may share a common love for soccer, bullfighting, and traditional Spanish cuisine) It is prudent to **avoid jokes and irony** **until** someone one is **certain** of the other culture\'s definition of **appropriate humor** - E.g.: In some cultures, certain topics (religion, politics, or personal appearance) are considered taboo and may not be suitable for jokes. If you are unsure about the cultural norms of the person you are speaking with, it is best to avoid making jokes on these topics. **3. Definitions of culture** - **What is culture ?** - A comprehensive workable **definition of culture** is based on the **belief** that its value systems lie at its core. - **Culture** includes its norms of **behaviour, beliefs, aesthetic standards, patterns of thinking and styles of communication** which a particular group of people have developed over time to ensure their survival. - **Culture** is therefore **socially**, and **not biologically, constructed**. - In most **Western languages**: - **'Culture'** is taken to mean **'civilization', 'education', 'art'.** - **Culture** is also a form of **mental programming** - **Hofstede** describes culture as: 'The collective **programming of the mind**, which **distinguishes** the members of one group or category of people from another' (1994: 5) - Divide culture into: - **implicit culture** -- basic assumptions which produce norms - **explicit culture** -- observable reality which includes language, food, music, dress, literature, architecture, public emotion, work ethic, noise, physical contact and so on **Culture** is a system of shared **beliefs and values** which are learned rather than inherited - E.g.: - **Oberg's iceberg analogy** - **Visible culture:** **above** the waves, the **explicit culture** - observable reality. This can be relatively easily observed - E.g.: **Art:** Paintings, sculptures, music, literature - **Invisible culture:** **below** the waves, the **implicit culture**. - E.g.: **Values:** Beliefs, morals, ethics **The assumptions, at the deepest level, most important levels of culture, and most difficult to understand.** **4. Corporate culture** - **What is corporate culture ?** - **Corporate culture** is the **collective behaviour** of people **in organizations** where they **share the same** corporate *vision, goals, values, customs and work procedures, a common working language and symbols.* - It is often found in large multinational companies (such as Google, Apple, BMW,..), the Armed Forces, the Diplomatic Service, or in professional life, codes of professional conduct and ethical standards. - Corporate culture within an organization includes the **logo**, advertising **slogans** and the common **jargon** used. - E.g.: In the medical field, "**Stat**" means Immediately or urgently, "**BP**" means Blood pressure, "**Dx**" means Diagnosis, or "**DOA**" means Dead on arrival. - Other corporate symbols can include the myths and stories about the founders, its particular successes, the annual office party and the company uniform. - Corporate culture is like a **company\'s** ethos or **personality**, which is **communicated to all** **employees and suppliers.** - Large multinationals further **develop their corporate culture** through the setting up of **corporate universities.** - E.g.: **McDonald\'s Hamburger University** (1961), **Apple University** (2008), **Disney University** (1955) **5. Communication styles** - **Communication** is the process of **exchanging thoughts, information and instructions** between **people**. - **Three** broad areas of communication: **verbal** communication, **non-verbal** communication (body language), **written** communication. - **Communication** **styles**: Direct-Indirect, Details-Suggestions, What/Why-Why/What, Formal-Informal, Emotional-Neutral, Fast-Slow. **5.1. Direct/ Indirect** - **Direct** communicators express their thoughts, feelings, and needs clearly, openly, and straightforwardly. - **Indirect** communicators focus on being **polite** and **avoid causing offence**. - **E.g.: Asking for help** Direct communicators say: "You need to help me." - **E.g.: When you don't agree with something** Direct communicators say: "I don't agree." - **E.g.: An employee is asking their boss for a day off** Direct communicators say: "You can't take the weekend off." - **Details** communicators go into **great detail** so that everything is **clearly understood**. - **Suggestions** communicators are more **general** in their approach. They may prefer to **hint** or make **suggestions** to allow the recipient the opportunity to interpret. - **E.g.: Giving advice on choosing a restaurant** - **E.g.: Preparing the training sessions** - **What/Why** communicators tend to **get to the point quickly** and then provide **explanations and context afterwards**. - **Why/What** communicators **provide the context and background before saying** what he or she wants. - **E.g.: Choosing a new smartphone** - **E.g.: Deciding on a vacation destination** - **Formal** communicators use **professional and structured language**, focusing on **clarity** and **respect**. Formal communication is often found in **business** settings and **academic writing**. - **Informal** communicators are more **relaxed, casual, and friendly** in their approach. Informal communication is common in **personal conversations**, text messages, and social media. - E.g.: Formal and informal email  - **Emotional communicators** express their feelings **openly** and **passionately**. Their tone, word choice, and body language reflect their emotions, whether positive or negative.  - **Neutral** communicators keep their emotions in check and focus on facts or information. Their tone remains calm and balanced, avoiding strong emotional expressions. - E.g: Emotional communicator: \"I'm really upset about this,\" - E.g.: Emotional communicator: \"Wow, I can\'t believe we finally finished the project!\" - **Ping-pong cultures:** **fast speaking**, **interrupting** and tolerance of interruptions. → **'Ping-pongers'** can be seen as rather shallow and **inconsiderate listeners**. - **'bowling' cultures: slower speaking**, observing strict turn - taking in conversation and **avoiding interruptions** whenever possible. → **'Bowlers' pause before speaking**, give themselves time to consider and then speak. - E.g.: The speed of delivery of languages like Spanish or Hindi has been found to be on average significantly faster than, for example, German or English. - The **pace of life** in large cities may have an effect on the **speed** of speech delivery - E.g.: People from New York, Los Angeles or Chicago in the USA speak faster than those living in the Midwest or the South. **6. Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication** - E.g.: An English-speaking tourist visiting Asian countries expects that everyone in those countries can communicate by English fluently because they assume that English, nowadays, is a global language. - E.g.: A manager in the U.S. schedules a mandatory video call at 3 PM their time, not considering that it\'s midnight for team members in Asia.  - E.g.: During a business trip, an American executive insists on handshakes as a greeting, unaware that in some cultures, bowing or other forms of greeting are preferred. - E.g.: In Japan, it\'s polite to say \"Itadakimasu\" before eating a meal. A foreigner feels this is unnecessary or odd, thinking that their own way of not having a specific ritual before eating is better. - E.g.: A U.S. tourist might view the custom of removing shoes before entering someone's house in Japan as unnecessary and inconvenient, thinking their own custom of keeping shoes on indoors is better. - E.g.: A foreign visitor might see people in India eating with their hands and think it's unhygienic or uncivilized compared to using utensils. - E.g.: A company sends marketing materials translated by a machine without checking for cultural nuances or context. This can result in awkward or inappropriate phrasing that could undermine the effectiveness of the communication. - E.g.: An American manager may expect Japanese employees to speak up in meetings as in the U.S. However, in Japan, employees might be more reserved. This can lead to misunderstandings and frustration if the manager sees them as uncooperative. - E.g.: A foreign tourist wears shorts and a tank top to visit a pagoda in Vietnam because they think casual clothes are okay everywhere. However, many Vietnamese pagodas expect visitors to dress modestly as a way to show respect. - E.g.: Imagine you\'re working with a team from a different country, and you\'re aware that their communication style is more indirect and polite compared to your own. You worry that if you address issues directly, you might be considered rude. - E.g.: Suppose you're at a friend's party and someone from a different culture mentions a topic you\'re unfamiliar with. You're worried that asking questions or expressing curiosity might make you seem uninformed or disrespectful. - E.g.: In China, finishing all the food on your plate might signal that the host did not provide enough food. An American might not realize this and clean their plate, which could be interpreted as impolite. - E.g.: A Korean girl gives a watch as a birthday gift to her Chinese friends. However, in Chinese culture, gifting a watch is considered taboo because it symbolizes the end of a relationship or even death. - E.g.: Patting a child's head in Japan or America is fine. However, it is seen as a big problem in Thailand, as the head is considered the cleanest part of the body. Patting or ruffling it, it's a sign of disrespect. - **E.g.: Afternoon tea ** Many people assume that all British people regularly enjoy English afternoon tea. However, it is not a daily routine for everyone. Some people might prefer coffee or other beverages, and not everyone observes the tradition of afternoon tea.  - **E.g.: Sushi ** - **E.g.: 'Real India' is dirty and chaotic** **7. Problems of cross-cultural communication** **7.1. Ethnocentrism** - - - E.g.: Attacks on people of Asian descent have increased in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.  - **Common reactions:** - **Ignorance:** Be ignorant of other people's culture - **Fear and anxiety:** Be afraid of novelty, embarrassment and conflict - **Laziness:** Be reluctant to learn and practice tolerance and understanding **7.2. Cultural diversity** - A lack of awareness and understanding of cultural diversity can create misunderstandings and, in extreme cases, even offense - E.g.: In Western countries like the USA, Canada, or Europe, making direct eye contact is seen as a sign of confidence, attentiveness, and respect. However, In many East Asian countries, making direct eye contact---especially with elders, superiors, or authority figures---can be viewed as disrespectful or confrontational.  **7.3. Assuming similarity with one's own culture** - There is often a tendency to assume similarities between the foreign culture and one's own, rather than understanding the differences - E.g.: there are very few differences between British and American cultures, although in reality there are many subtle ways in which the two cultures differ: American spells "apologize" while British spells "apologise" **7.4. Stereotyping** - E.g.: In movies and TV shows, certain ethnic groups are often portrayed using negative stereotypes. For example, Middle Eastern people are frequently depicted as terrorists, Latinos as drug dealers or criminals, and Asians as socially awkward or overly academic. **8. Perception, reality, stereotypes** **8.1. Perception** - **Perception** is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information affects our communication - - E.g.: Korean people or Japanese people would find people from Europe rude if Europeans give direct criticism to them while it is not a matter with European people - **Differences in culture** are very often because of **differences in perception.** - E.g.: In many Western cultures, punctuality is highly valued because they have a perception that \"time is money\"  - **Perception becomes Reality when we really understand the other culture** - - Stereotypes are usually **harmless** if used only **as a general rule of thumb** - Stereotypes can be **hurtful, dangerous and racist** if taken to **be the whole truth about another group of people** **Perception becomes a Stereotype when it involves an oversimplified and fixed belief about a group of people based on characteristics such as their race, nationality, gender, or culture.** **9. What influences our cross-cultural effectiveness?** **Factors influence our cross-cultural effectiveness** - **Individual personality** - E.g.: When working in a foreign country, an open-minded manager may be curious about local customs, eager to try local food, and willing to learn the local language.  - **Our national characteristics** - E.g.: In collectivist cultures like Japan, South Korea, or China, the needs of the group (family, community, or company) are often prioritized over individual goals. - when working with them, a manager should value teamwork, harmony, group decision-making - **Our professional training** - E.g.:  U.S.-based companies expanding into China might provide cross-cultural awareness training to its employees, teaching them about Chinese business etiquette, communication styles, and negotiation practices. **How to reduce barriers to effective cross-cultural communication?** - **Develop** **listening skills** → listen to their intrinsic meaning - **Check our perceptions** about what others say and do  - **Seek feedback** to check whether other people understand our message - **Need at times to take risks** in order to open up channels of communication