GST101A & GST101B Use Of English Lecture Material PDF

LECTURE MATERIAL First & Second Semester COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. IFUNAYA DANIEL UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA  Contents...

LECTURE MATERIAL First & Second Semester COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. IFUNAYA DANIEL UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA  Contents COURSE MANUAL GST101 University of Abuja Centre for Distance Learning and Continuing Education  Institution: Area 3, Garki Abuja (FCT), Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Website: www. cdlce.uniabuja.edu.ng Contents Use of English List of Figures............................................................................................................................................................... v List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................ v How this Course Manual is structured.................................................................................................................... 1 Welcome to Use of English GST101......................................................................................................................... 3 Course outcomes......................................................................................................................................................... 4 Study Skills.................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Timeframe..................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Student Support.......................................................................................................................................................... 5 Assessments................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Navigation icons.......................................................................................................................................................... 6 Study Session 1 7 Language Skills (Listening)........................................................................................................................................ 7 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1 What is Listening?.................................................................................................................................................. 9 1.2 Types of Listening................................................................................................................................................13 1.3 Bad Listening Habit..............................................................................................................................................15 Session Summary....................................................................................................................................................... 17 Assessment.................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Study Session 2 18 Language Skill (Speaking)....................................................................................................................................... 18 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 18 2.1 The Sounds of English.........................................................................................................................................19 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 35 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 35 Study Session 3 36 Language Skill (Reading)......................................................................................................................................... 36 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 36 3.1 What is Reading?................................................................................................................................................. 38 3.2 Methods of Reading........................................................................................................................................... 40 3.3 Sentence Analyses and Sentence Comprehension.................................................................................... 42 3.4 Bad Reading Habits............................................................................................................................................ 44  Contents Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 46 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 46 Study Session 4 47 Language Skill (Writing)........................................................................................................................................... 47 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 47 4.1 What is Writing?................................................................................................................................................... 48 4.2 Types of Writing................................................................................................................................................... 50 4.3 Summary Writing................................................................................................................................................. 53 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 54 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 55 Study Session 5 56 Hierarchical Element of language (Morpheme)................................................................................................ 56 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 56 5.1 What is Morpheme?.............................................................................................................................................57 5.2 Types of Morpheme............................................................................................................................................ 59 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 60 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 60 Study Session 6 61 Hierarchical Element of Language (The Word).................................................................................................. 61 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 61 6.1 Defining Words..................................................................................................................................................... 62 6.2 Types of Words.................................................................................................................................................... 62 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 65 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 65 Study Session 7 66 The Phrase/Group..................................................................................................................................................... 66 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 66 7.1 What is a Phrase?................................................................................................................................................. 67 7.2 Types of Phrase.................................................................................................................................................... 67 Session Summary.......................................................................................................................................................75 Assessment..................................................................................................................................................................75 Study Session 8 76 The Clause................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 76 8.1 What is a Clause?.................................................................................................................................................. 77 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 82 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 82 Study Session 9 83 Sentence...................................................................................................................................................................... 83 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 83 9.1 What is a Sentence?............................................................................................................................................ 84 9.2 Types of Sentences............................................................................................................................................. 84 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 89 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 89 Study Session 10 90 Word Group and Determinants.............................................................................................................................. 90 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 90 10.1 What are Word Classes?................................................................................................................................... 90 10.2 The Determiners.................................................................................................................................................91 Session Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 95 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................. 95 Study Session 11 96 Nouns, Pronouns and Verbs................................................................................................................................... 96 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 96 11.1 What is a Noun?.................................................................................................................................................. 97 11.2 Defining Pronouns............................................................................................................................................101 11.3 What are Verbs?............................................................................................................................................... 106 Session Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 108 Assessment............................................................................................................................................................... 108 Study Session 12 109 Adverb, Adjectives and Preposition................................................................................................................... 109 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................. 109 12.1 What is an Adverb?...........................................................................................................................................110 12.2 What is an Adjective?...................................................................................................................................... 113 12.3 Prepositions....................................................................................................................................................... 116 Session Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 117 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................ 117 Study Session 13 118 Conjunctions and Interjections............................................................................................................................118 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................118 13.1 What is Conjunction?.......................................................................................................................................118  Contents 13.2 Interjections..................................................................................................................................................... 120 Session Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 121 Assessment................................................................................................................................................................ 121 Study Session 14 122 Registers.....................................................................................................................................................................122 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................122 14.1 Defining Register..............................................................................................................................................123 14.2 Types of Register............................................................................................................................................. 124 Session Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 134 Assessment............................................................................................................................................................... 134 Figure 1.1 Listening 9 Figure 1.2 Ineffective Listening can Lead to Frustration 10 Table 1.1 Hearing versus Listening 11 Figure 1.5 Active Listening during discussion 13 Figure 2.1 Organs of Speech (cc: https://www2.leeward.hawaii.edu) 20 Table 2.1 Monophthongs and Diphthongs 24 Table 2.2 Example of Stress 31 Figure 2.2 Adebola Williams | Speech maker 34 Figure 3.1 Lewis Carrol | A Poet and Writer 38 Figure 4.1 Culture of Egypt kept with Writing 48 Figure 4.2 A Narrative Writing (4.bp.blogspot.com) 51 Figure 4.3 Link between Effective Reading, Comprehension and Effective Summary 53 Figure 5.1 Units of Language 57 Table 5.1 Morphemes 58 Table 11.1 Categories of Personal Pronoun 102 GST101 Use of English       We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.          About this Course Manual     GST101 Use of English GST101 Interactive Multimedia Mobile Class GST101 is a compulsory university course.  Course overview  develop basic factual comprehension of what is heard.  appreciate and enjoy certain aspects of spoken discourse. Outcomes  answer basic information questions about what is heard.  comprehend explicit information in spoken discourse (actions, ideas, reactions, etc.)  comprehend, interpret, appreciate and enjoy spoken discourse  take note of specific information based on what is heard.    GST101 Use of English  Getting around this Course Manual Assessment Activity Case Study Discussion Help Learner Support Note Outcomes Quick Mobile Reflection Review Study Skills Time Tip Video Activity Web Activity GST101 Use of English In all spheres of life, listening is a very useful skill for effective communication. This is because effective communication requires both the ability to produce well- articulated speeches as well as the ability to receive messages adequately. This study session will therefore take you through the techniques and strategies for effective listening. When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 1.1 define listening 1.2 highlight types of listening 1.3 describe bad listening  Study Session 1 | Language Skills (Listening) Listening and Hearing Language Slkills (Listening) What is Listening? Basic Steps in Listening Goals of Listening Active Listening Types of Listening Passive Listening Pre-Judgement Critiquing Over Stimulation Listening only for Facts Outlining Ideas in a Bad Listening Habit Disorderly Manner Faking Attention Tolerating or Creating Distractions Evading the Difficult Submitting to Emotional Words GST101 Use of English This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an additional two hours for revision. Sound Hearing Listening Listening is to give one's attention to sound. Listening involves complex affective, cognitive, and behavioural processes. Affective processes include the motivation to attend to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving, and interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioural processes include responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback. Listening differs from obeying. A person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even though the result is not what the speaker wanted. Listening is a term in which the listener listens to the one who produced the sound to be listened. Figure 1.1 Listening  Study Session 1 | Language Skills (Listening) International Listening Association defines listening as the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. It is also a conscious process by which we seek to understand and retain aural stimuli for a future use. In the definition above, there are three key points you should note. These are: 1. Process of receiving, 2. Constructing meaning from spoken/non-verbal messages, and 3. Responding to spoken/non-verbal messages. These three points present listening as involving several actions, interactions and reactions, moving from the point of hearing, through interpretation, through attention, through retention to recall. In addition, listening helps you to make sense out of a message before communicating it to someone else. A good listener must be able to accurately receive and interpret messages in a communication process. As a good listener, you should be able to give feedback to someone else on the content you have listened to. Therefore, listening is a key skill to all effective communication. When you do not listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood, resulting in communication breakdown. This may even make the sender of the message easily frustrated or irritated. Figure 1.2 Ineffective Listening can Lead to Frustration It is important for you to be able to differentiate between hearing and listening because they are terms that cannot be used interchangeably. The differences are illustrated in the table below: GST101 Use of English Table 1.1 Hearing versus Listening Hearing Listening Hearing is a natural and passive Listening is an active, deliberate process which requires little or no and conscious process. conscious effort Hearing is not a mental process Listening is an active mental process. Hearing requires less energy Listening requires huge energy While hearing is superficial Listening is profound. o Listening process involves receiving, constructing meaning from, and __________ to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. a. adjusting b. responding c. adapting d. amounting  The correct answer is b. (responding), because it is part of the process of listening. Other option are not part of listening process. At this stage, you need to know that listening is a linear process. The three basic steps in listening are hearing, understanding and judging as discussed below. 1. Hearing : means knowing that a sound is being made using your ear. It is the first step in listening. You cannot listen without the ability to hear. 2. Understanding : is the step that deals with your ability to comprehend what the speaker said. As a listener, you should understand what is said in your own way which must not be in conflict with the speaker’s intention. Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object.  Study Session 1 | Language Skills (Listening) 3. Judging : is when you evaluate what has been said. After you are sure you have comprehended what the speaker said, you need to think about whether it makes sense to you or not. o ___________ is a natural and passive process which requires little or no conscious effort. a. Listening b. Writing c. Reading d. Hearing  If you had chosen option a, b and c, you would be wrong. The right answer is d. (Hearing) because hearing does not require a conscious effort while the others do. There are three goals you should often set in listening. Your listening goals should state what you personally would like to gain during and after receiving a particular message. These goals are: 1. Listening to understand ideas: When you listen to understand ideas, you listen to main ideas or central concepts. You then identify key words and phrases that will help you to accurately summarize the concepts being discussed. 2. Listening to retain information: This involves focusing your attention on messages and then learning how to make sure that what you heard is retained. To retain information, you need certain tools, these are: a. Repetition: reproducing verbatim what you have listened to; b. Paraphrase: restating what someone has said in your own words and c. Visualization: forming a picture about what you have heard in your mind. 3. Listening to analyze and evaluate conflicts: Your ability to analyze and evaluate what you have listened to calls for a greater skill than retention. When you listen to analyze and evaluate conflicts effectively, you become skillful at identifying fallacies or falsehood in the arguments and statements you encounter in communication. GST101 Use of English o Listening with a purpose involves ________. a. passive listening b. active listening c. lazy listening d. abstract listening  The correct answer is B (active listening), because it requires much attention. Others require less attention. We have been discussing what listening is all about in the last section. At this stage, we need to know the types of listening that exists. Broadly speaking, listening can be categorised into two types; active and passive listening. When you engage in active listening, you are listening with a purpose. In other words, you engage all your senses, attitudes, thoughts, feelings and intentions in the communication process. It is important for you to know that all successful communicators and learners generally require active listening because it is employed to comprehend, extract information and evaluate facts and opinions. Figure 1.5 Active Listening during discussion  Study Session 1 | Language Skills (Listening) Purposive active listening is: 1. Serious Listening- is a form of active, purposeful and goal- directed listening. Here, you give rapt attention to what is being said. By its very nature, serious listening requires a lot of concentration, attention, selectivity and mental processing. 2. Critical Listening – is when you listen to speeches in order to distinguish between facts and opinions or logical and emotional arguments. This type of listening involves evaluating as well as analysing the ideas being listened to. iii. Discriminative Listening – entails listening to draw out the main purpose of a text in order to remember essential parts of the message. To achieve this, you need sound knowledge of word discrimination and association. This helps you to use context clues to find meanings of words as well as relate details of the message to the main points. 3. 3. Social listening – Social listening is appreciative and conversational in nature. It is when you give total attention to the communicative process. Therefore, social listening is employed in dialogues, chit-chats, conversations, friendly arguments/discussions, gossips and others. When you engage in passive listening, you have little or no personal involvement in the communication process. This is the type of listening which you engage in when you are present in a discussion in which you are not really involved. For example, an apprentice technician who joins the audience in an inaugural lecture will listen passively. He will just manage to listen to the sounds; he will not be able to identify meaningfully the spoken signals, least of all correctly interpret what is being said. You must note that passive listening is a negative listening behaviour. It is, however, unavoidable and beyond the listener’s control in some instances. o All of these tools can be used for retaining information during listening process except __________. GST101 Use of English a. paraphrasing b. repetition c. adaptation d. visualization  The correct answer is c (adaption), because hallucination is not real, while listening is an active experience. You should know that different individuals exhibit certain attitudes that negatively affect listening. These are behaviours which have the tendency to create misinterpretation or total loss of information that could be important to you. You can train yourself to lose your bad listening habits and enhance the good ones. The following are the bad listening habits. You should identify some that you have and make conscious effort to correct them. Many listeners conclude that the speech is uninteresting even before listening to it. When you have convinced yourself that the topic is uninteresting, you will be discouraged from making sense out of what is being said. A good listener will take time to listen to a topic even if it sounds uninteresting. You may discover that the topic, though uninteresting to you, may surprisingly turn out to be useful. There is always a tendency for one to mentally criticize the speaker’s manner of presentation or appearance. For example, you claim the voice is too soft, loud or that the dressing is inappropriate, etc. These criticisms make it difficult for you as a listener to absorb what is being said. Therefore, you need to concentrate on what the speaker is saying so as to get the message. Always remember that the form in which a message is presented is not as important as the content of the message. Sometimes, we disagree with what a speaker has said and rather than keep listening to them, we get carried away, building our counter argument and formulating questions in our mind to ask the speaker after the delivery. We therefore miss the additional comments and lose other important points. This drops our listening efficacy to nearly zero because of over-stimulation. You must always listen to the complete presentation of a speaker before drawing conclusion about it.  Study Session 1 | Language Skills (Listening) It is ideal to identify the facts in what you listen to. However, in the course of doing this, you must not miss the primary ideas being passed across by the speaker. Therefore, while listening, do not isolate the facts because they are only meaningful within the primary ideas. Some listeners, especially at lectures and talks, outline all that is said. You must develop different styles of outlining for different speakers. Some speakers are logical in their presentation while some are not. It is good for you to identify the speaker’s method for your benefit. Many listeners fake attention by nodding or staring at the speaker while delivering their message. Their eyes are on them but their minds are miles away. This is probably one of the most common bad listening habits. As a listener, you need to identify your faking habit and eliminate it. When you whisper or listen to someone whispering to you in an audience of listeners, you are creating distraction or tolerating distraction. You should avoid falling into this category of listeners because doing so will distract you as well as other listeners in the audience. Most listeners have a tendency to listen only to things that are easy to comprehend, avoiding things that are more difficult. You should always concentrate on all aspects of a communication process without selectively giving more attention to what is simpler and easier to comprehend. Some words have emotional impact on some listeners. For instance, a child who has no parents may be emotional when the word “orphan” is mentioned in a discussion. You should not allow emotional words distract your attention in the course of listening. GST101 Use of English o ________ is a bad listening habit. a. Repeating the speech b. Criticising the speaker’s delivery c. Taking notes d. Asking questions  The correct answer is B (Criticising the speaker’s delivery), because it makes it difficult for you to absorb what is being said. In conclusion, making conscious effort to identify these bad habits and avoid them would enhance your listening skill. In this study session, we discussed listening. We started by looking at the different meanings of listening. Thereafter, we highlighted the different types of listening that human display. We concluded the session by describing what a bad listening habit means and how to control it. SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1) Abu believe listening is all about just hearing. But since you know better, can you tell Abu what listening really means. SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.2) What do you understand by purposive active listening? SAQ 1.3 (tests Learning Outcome 1.3) Describe 3 types of listening habits.  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) Human beings differ basically from animals because they can speak. The possession and use of language to communicate is exclusive to human beings. This study session therefore introduces you to the sounds of English, stress and intonation, as well as skills of effective speaking, with a view to enabling the learner speak intelligible English. When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 2.1 describe the sounds of English Language Skills Consonant (Speaking) Vowels The Sound of English Stress Intonation Speech Making and Delivery Skills This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an additional two hours for revision. GST101 Use of English Consonants Vowels Stress Intonation Speech It is essential for you to know the importance of the sounds human beings produce to make meaning. Speaking is a process of constructing meaningful sounds. It is a stage in the communication process of producing, receiving and processing information. It is a means by which information is encoded orally into a linguistic form or code for transmission to a decoder. The encoder is the speaker while the decoder is the listener. Speaking is a productive skill because it involves the production of meaningful sounds for the reception of the listener who must also be proficient in the language in which the message is encoded. Pronunciation is one area where most non-native speakers of English encounter problems. You must have observed, as speakers of English, that some of the sounds of Standard English are not found in the Nigerian languages. You therefore have a tendency to substitute sounds in your native languages for such sounds for ease of production.  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) Let us proceed to study the sound units of English in the webinar that follows. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiqUVnXExTQ Now, let us look at some of the speech sounds. Consonants are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial blockage of the airstreams at some point in the vocal tract. There are twenty-four consonants in English, comprising fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants. Figure 2.1 Organs of Speech (cc: https://www2.leeward.hawaii.edu) Voiced Consonants A consonant is said to be voiced when its production is accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords. Voiceless Consonants > A consonant is said to be voiceless when there is no such vibration of the vocal cords during its production. GST101 Use of English Look and Pronounce Look at the following words, the emphasis is on the underlined letters. Try to pronounce each of those words. ================================================ /p/ as in pen, pray, apple, drop /b/ as in bat, blame, rubber, bride /t/ as in top, ten, kettle, laughed /d/ as in day, drug, ladder, lad /k/ as in cat, quay, bacon, quick /g/ as in grow, grass, figure, plague /f/ as in farm, form, trophy, rough /v/ as in vat, vice, reveal, carve /ө/as in thin, thick, method, path /ð / as in that, then, father, clothe /s/ as in see, sword, receive, maps /z/as in zoo, zip, frozen, lads /∫/ as in shoe, sheep, machine, wash / Ʒ / as in treasure, measure, prestige /h/ as in hat, hoe, behave / ʧ / as in chair, cheap, nature, watch / ʤ / as in judge, adjust, passage /m/ as in man, armour, tomb, comb /n/ as in not, kneel, annual, button / ŋ/ as in language, bring, hang /l/ as in let, lame, select, cruel /r/ as in right, wreck, sorry, vary /w/ as in one, we, quick, upward /j/ as in you, university, new huge =================================================  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) Some English sounds have very similar pronunciations. Yet, they connote different meanings. We need to know and practise these sounds so as to use them discriminatorily. E.g. pin and bin are only differentiated by /p/ and /b/ but pin does not have the same meaning as bin. Let us look at some of those words that sound alike but have different meaning /p/ /b/ pan ban plays blaze prank brand peak beak cramp crab /ʧ/ /ʤ/ etch edge churn John picture pageant patch page catch cage GST101 Use of English Words that Sound Alike Can you now write out some of the words that sound alike but have different meaning? You should be able to present some of the following: /l/ /r/ allowed aroused lap wrap allay array light write long wrong /w/ /j/ weed yield woke yoke warn yawn wonder yonder wood youth o Identify the vowel sounds in the following underlined letter(s). 1. water (A. / ɔ: /) (B. /ɒ /) (C. /ɜ:/) (D. /ə /) 2. boil (A. /ɔ: /) (B. /ɩ: /) (C. /ɔɪ /) (D. /ɪ /) 3. parent (A. / ɪə /) (B. /eə /) (C. /æ /) (D. / ɪа /)  The correct options are shown thus: 1. The correct answer is A, /ɔ:/ because the underlined letter represents the selected long pure vowel sound. 2. The correct answer is C, /ɔɪ/ because the underlined letter  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) represents the selected diphthong vowel sound. 3. The right answer is B. /eə/ because the underlined letter represents the selected diphthong vowel sound. English vowels are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs. Monophthongs are those vowels produced with single vowel nucleus. There are twelve of them. Diphthongs are produced with double vowel nuclei; that is, in the production of a diphthong, the tongue moves from one vowel position to another. There are eight diphthongs in English. In summary, there are twenty vowel sounds in English. Table 2.1 Monophthongs and Diphthongs Monophthongs Diphthongs /i:/ in as in leave, seat, foetus, /eI / as in day, hate, fail, tail quay / ∂ʊ / as in so, foe, toe, soul /I/ as in live, sit, city, women, /aI/ as in high, die, tie, sky message /e/ as in egg, bed, guest, leopard, / aʊ / as in house, how howl, allow bury /ɔI / as in boil, toil, boy, joy /æ/ as in axe, mad, back, tap /I∂/ as in tear, near, deer, cheer /a:/ as in hard, park, aunt, heart /e∂/ as in share, fare, fair, where / ɒ / as in odd, yacht, sausage, cough / ʊ∂/ as in poor, moor, tour, sure / ɔ: / as in ore, oar, court, board / ʊ / as in full, pull, good, could /u: / as in fool, pool, fruit, move / ʌ / as in sun, son, bus, fun, love /3:/ as in earn, serve, work, purse /∂/ as in about, writer, actor, famous GST101 Use of English Read and Pronounce /i/ /i:/ /e/ Sit seat set Bit beat bet Tin teen ten Bid bead bed Pit Pleats pet /æ/ / a:/ cat cart pat part fat fart hat heart pack park /ʊ/ /u:/ pull pool cook cool soot suit stood stool brook broom  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) /ɒ/ /ɔ:/ pot port don dawn ton torn con corn cot caught / / /з:/ upper usurper cub curb such search judge church mulch merge The / Ə / sound called schwa is an important vowel in the English Language. However, it is the least used sound in Nigerian English! It only occurs in unstressed syllables and most English vowels weaken to it when the stress is removed from them. This makes it the most frequently occurring sound of English. The sound can be practised by looking at a set of English vowels that use stress to change from nouns to verbs or adjectives. Note that when there is stress on the syllable, it does not contain a schwa vowel. However, when stress shifts away from that syllable to another syllable, the strong vowel it had before would change to schwa. E.g absent / bs nt/ / / bsent/. GST101 Use of English /Ə/ Noun Verb or Adjective 'absent ab'sent 'rebel re'bel 'project pro'ject 'pervert per'vert 'conduct con'duct 'contest con'test 'produce pro'duce 'object ob'ject /eI/ /aI/ pay pie gay guy pray pry tape type claim climb /əʊ / /aʊ / no now tone town load loud chair cheer hoe how  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) /eə/ /Iə/ fare fear mare mere dare deer chair cheer there dear /ɔI/ / ʊƏ/ boyish boorish coin cure join juror toiling tourist Short Vowels Long Vowels sit seat fill feel pat part ban barn pull pool could cooed cot court pot port wed word cod curd GST101 Use of English o Choose the option that has the same consonant sound as the one in the underlined letters. 1. cheque (A. machine B. chord C. curve D. ritual) 2. laugh (A. caught B. raft C. dough D. ghost) 3. site (A. rice B. rise C. reason D. pose)  The correct answer is D, (ritual), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘cheque’. The correct answer is B, (raft), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘laugh’. The correct answer is A, (rice), because it is the word that has the same sound as ‘site’. More sound discrimination wad ward word ton torn turn won worn worm cod cord curd Silent letters Some letters of English words are often not pronounced in particular contexts. While some are easily mastered by learners of English, others are quite challenging. Let us take a look at some of the letters and practise how to make them silent. Pronounce: Letters Examples of words with silent letters B bomb dumb tomb comb debt C muscle D handkerchief sandwich Wednesday G champagne foreign sign feign H hour honest honour heir  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) L calm half talk would should N autumn hymn P psychology receipt pneumonia S isle island T castle Christmas fasten listen often U guess guidance guest In addition to mastering the sound units of English, you should also understand stress , an important feature of the English language. Simply put, stress is the prominence assigned to a particular syllable of a word which makes it stand out from the other syllables. A stressed syllable is produced with greater muscular energy and perceived as being longer and louder than the unstressed one. In English, a word that contains more than one syllable will have one of the syllables bear what we call the primary stress. Also, in English, the primary stress is indicated by a stroke occurring up before the syllable that carries the stress. For Example: 1. ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) 2. con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) 3. im'port (verb) 'import(noun) 4. re'bel (verb) 'rebel (noun) Secondary stress, on the other hand, is placed below and before the secondarily stressed syllable e.g. edu'cation. As it is the case in the examples cited, stress is used to distinguish between words with the same spellings, but which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for emphasis. For Example: I saw 'him. ('him' is emphasized) 'I saw him. ('I' is emphasized) I 'saw him. ('saw' is emphasized) It is not easy determining which syllable is to be stressed in a polysyllabic English word. However, if you regularly consult a good dictionary that indicates how a word is to be pronounced, you should be able to overcome the problem. Listening to audiobooks of English sound experts can also be helpful to you. GST101 Use of English Now, try to pronounce the following words: ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) im'port (verb) 'import (noun) re'bel (verb), 'rebel (noun) In the examples cited above, stress is used to distinguish between words with the same spellings which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for emphasis. For example: E.g. I saw 'him ('him' emphasised) I 'saw him ('saw' emphasised) 'I saw him (' I' emphasised) In English, there is no rule regarding which syllable of a word is to be stressed. For instance, you cannot say always stress the first, second or third syllable. Hence, when you learn a new English word, always check its stress pattern. Try to note the capitalized letters in the table below. Table 2.2 Example of Stress Contestant Afternoon Diligent Colonial education January Impossible Depend Helicopter occupation Educate PHOtograph BEAUtiful unfortunate captivity Canteen Referee aSSIstant Maroon university Commercial Grammarian NiGErian emancipation eROsion o Choose the option where stress is not on the second syllable. 1. A. river B. induce C. import (v) D. impose 2. A. impossible B. export (noun) C. Nigerian D. erosion 3. A. intend B. driver C. colonial D. canteen  The correct answer is D (river), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second. The right answer is B (export, n), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second.  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) The right answer is B (driver), because stress is assigned to the first syllable instead of the second. Intonation refers to the variation in the pitch level of the voice. When we speak, our voice does not remain at one level; it goes up and down and this phenomenon simply refers to intonation. This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence i.e. whether it is a statement or question; the attitude of the speaker to what is being said or to the listener. In English, there are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising. The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and “wh”-questions, e.g.: 1. This is a good boy. (declarative) 2. Get out of this place. (command) 3. Where are you going? (Wh-question) Usually, utterances that are made with the falling intonation tune can be made with the rising tune to indicate warmth, excitement, etc. Also with intonation, a declarative statement can be turned into a question. Watch the webinar below and pay attention to the instructor: The webinar is linked here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzh3Owutf5Y In the webinar, a facilitator explains to you how to stress English words and assign appropriate intonation tunes. GST101 Use of English Note the following from the foregoing webinar:  Intonation is the variation in the pitch level of the voice.  This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence.  There are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising.  The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and wh-questions.  The rising tune is used to ask polar questions (i.e. yes/no questions) make requests and reflect a doubtful attitude. You need to be familiar with stress and intonation as important features of the English language to be able to speak English well or use it for academic purpose. Functions of Intonation In English, intonation performs grammatical and attitudinal functions, among others. Grammatical Function Utter statements with falling tune. Change statements to questions with a rising tune. Ask Yes/No questions with rising tune. Ask wh-questions with falling tune. Attitudinal Function Make requests with rising tune. Give commands with falling tune. Show boredom with flat tune. Show indifference with a low-rising tune. Show excitement with a high rising tune. Show finality with a falling tune. (a) He has come. (a statement) Falling intonation (b) He has come? (a question) Raising intonation  Study Session 2 | Language Skill (Speaking) It is good for you to know that speaker’s skills and speech habits determine the success of any communication. As an effective speaker therefore, you need to be able to pass your message clearly and appropriately according to purpose and audience. Figure 2.2 Adebola Williams | Speech maker You also need to understand the topic you have to speak on very well. This could be achieved through research. Thorough research will guide you in planning what to say in advance and consequently build your confidence since you would have been well equipped for the task. There is a tendency for a speaker who is unfamiliar with his material to get nervous. You should therefore practise your speech or presentation several times before the time. You also need to decide beforehand how to structure your presentation because a good presentation needs an introduction, body and a conclusion. The introduction will ‘tell your audience what you are going to tell them’; the body will ‘tell them' and the conclusion will succinctly ‘tell them again'. o Utter these sentences as commands and as requests, using the appropriate tunes. i. Save a copy for me. ii. Drive carefully. GST101 Use of English  Save a copy for me. (command)/ Save a copy for me. (request) Drive carefully. (command)/ Drive carefully. (request) In this Study session, we have discussed how to produce the sounds of English, how to apply stress appropriately and assign intonation tunes correctly. We have also looked at how to make and deliver excellent speeches. SAQ 2.1 (tests Learning Outcome 2.1) Discuss, at least, three speech sounds in English that you know.  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading) This study session is on reading, an important skill we need to be proficient in as a student. It is basic to learning, and it is one of the most important skills required to be functional in a literate society. Reading provides the key to all kinds of information. When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 3.1 describe reading 3.2 list different types of reading 3.3 differentiate between sentence analysis and comprehension 3.4 explain bad reading habit GST101 Use of English Importance of Reading What is Reading? Language Skill (Reading) Types of Reading Types of Reading Speed Methods of Reading Reading and Comprehension Sentence Analysis Sentence Analysis and Recognizing Puctuatuation Sentence Comprehension Clues Recognizing Signal Words Head Movement Pointing at Words Vocalization Bad Reading Habits Sub-Vocalization Regression Rhythmic Eye Movement Physical Disability  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading) This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an additional two hours for revision. Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension Before we engage in any serious discussion, let us first ask ourselves; what is Reading? Simply put, reading is a multifaceted process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Reading is making meaning from print. It requires that we: 1. Identify the words in print – a process called word recognition 2. Construct an understanding from them – a process called comprehension 3. Coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic and accurate – an achievement called fluency Sometimes you can make meaning from print without being able to identify all the words. Remember the last time you got a note in messy handwriting? You may have understood it, even though you couldn't decipher all the scribbles. Sometimes you can identify words without being able to construct much meaning from them. Figure 3.1 Lewis Carrol | A Poet and Writer Read the opening lines of Lewis Carroll's poem, "Jabberwocky," and you'll see what I mean: 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. GST101 Use of English Finally, sometimes you can identify words and comprehend them, but if the processes don't come together smoothly, reading will still be a laboured process. For example, try reading the following sentence: It isn't as if the words are difficult to identify or understand, but the spaces make you pause between words, which means your reading is less fluent. Reading in its fullest sense involves weaving together word recognition and comprehension in a fluent manner. These three processes are complex, and each is important. How complex? Here goes? In the simplest sense, reading means recognising letters and groups of letters as symbols which stand for particular sounds. The sounds in turn form words that express ideas in written or printed form. It involves how well the reader remembers, uses and reacts to the material. The ability to read and write is called literacy, and a person who can read is said to be literate. A person who cannot read is illiterate. Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. To survive in the literate world today, you need to be able to read road signs, maps, labels on medicine bottles, directions for operating new appliances, etc. The ability to perform all such useful activities is sometimes called functional reading or functional literacy. A special kind of functional literacy is learner literacy. This is very important to students. University students must read to gain an understanding of a wide variety of topics. Learner literacy also requires the ability to read special kinds of materials, including charts, graphs, maps and tables. People learn throughout their lives, and so such reading skills remain very useful even after a person has completed school. Another kind of functional literacy is workplace literacy. This involves the ability to read written materials necessary for doing a job. This is one way that a person's ability to read directly influences job success. o ………… is the act of getting meaning from printed or written words. a. Speaking b. Writing c. Reading d. Listening  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading)  Reading is the correct answer, option C. Of the language skills, it is the only skill that requires making sense of what someone has written to be read. There basically two types of Reading. They are the intensive and extensive reading. 1. Intensive Reading: This involves a close examination of the text to get the full meaning. This type of reading is that which one does for detail and analysis when one is aware that the material will have to be later recalled, recast, discussed and evaluated. It is often necessary to read and re-read the passage and pause to check up the meaning of some words or concepts. Comprehension is highly paramount for this kind of reading. 2. Extensive Reading: In extensive reading, the reader develops the habit of reading for pleasure which involves the ability to read quickly. This is often enjoyable since the reader does not have to struggle through the material. This rapid silent reading is also essential for assignments which involve reference work. o In extensive reading, you read mainly for …………. a. details b. assignments c. pleasure d. examinations  The answer is C (pleasure). Though extensive reading could be employed in assignments that involve reference work, it is mainly for pleasure. Some students tend to read slowly and laboriously because of uncertainty of what they are expected to learn from their reading assignments. Their uncertainty is increased when they are given tests which require accurate recall of minute details. You need to develop the ability to locate main ideas if you are to read with better comprehension. The two components of reading efficiency are the ability to read fast and the ability to comprehend the message. The speed at which you read a particular material depends on the level of difficulty of the material being read as well as your ability and background knowledge. GST101 Use of English Types of reading speed are listed below: 1. Study Reading Speed: This is the slowest reading speed, and it is used for difficult materials. 2. Average Reading Speed: This is what students do most of the time. Average reading speed is useful for extensive reading. Extensive reading involves reading rapidly for information as fast as possible and reading as many books or materials within the shortest time. 3. Skimming and Scanning: These techniques require very fast reading rate and differ significantly from regular or rapid reading in that not all the contents of the material is actually read. Skim whenever you want to get a general idea of a book’s content. For example, a reader should skim to decide whether a book might be a useful reference source. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly across a line or down a page to locate particular information. Look for key words or phrases that indicate you are close to the information you need. When you locate such a word, stop scanning and read slowly. o ………., ……… and…….are methods of reading. a. Average reading speed/study reading speed/recreational speed. b. Average reading speed/study reading speed/ skimming and scanning c. Average reading speed/scanning/ skimming. d. Average reading speed/ survey reading/skimming  The correct answer is Average reading speed/study reading speed/ skimming and scanning. These are the methods by which a material could be read. As a student, you need to understand the key words of this section, reading and comprehension , and their interrelatedness. Reading involves making visual contact with letters or groups of letters of alphabet and relating them to the sounds of the language which they represent. Comprehension involves making meaning out  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading) of the relationship between letters and sounds on the one hand, and between the sounds and what they refer to in the physical and social environment of the language on the other. Making meaning or comprehension involves recognizing what the words and sentences of the text say. You can know this through your own general knowledge or knowledge of the subject. In addition, this is also possible through the text being read and your knowledge of the language in which the text is written. Effective comprehension involves interpreting the message according to the circumstances or the contexts that shape the writer's knowledge and your experience as a reader. Read the following paragraph and answer the questions following it: However, the best kind of honey is the original one with reduced sugar content. The traditional way to identify original honey, according to Ahjia Sambo is that it sinks to the bottom of the container when poured in water. Another way is to rub it on the head of a matchstick and set it ablaze. If it is real, it will catch fire immediately. Question 1: According to the paragraph, how can one identify original honey? Feedback: By dropping it in water or rubbing it on the head of a matchstick and setting it ablaze. Question 2: ‘…the original one with reduced sugar content’. What is the grammatical name given to the expression above? Feedback: Noun phrase Question 3: What is its function as it is used in the sentence? Feedback: Functions as the complement of the subject It is important for us to know that the sentence is an essential basic unit of meaning and therefore of comprehension. The sentence brings various items of information to the paragraph. Each sentence contributes some aspects of the meaning of the paragraph. It is possible for you to understand the words of a sentence without really understanding what the sentence means. This may happen where the sentence GST101 Use of English is long and complex or complicated. To fully understand a sentence, a number of techniques can be adopted. Take a look at the following: You should analyse the sentence for its focus or theme. Your focus should be on content. Main clauses provide some focus of meaning. Subordinate clauses provide some circumstances modifying the meaning derived from the main clause. Consider this sentence, for example: He left when we asked him to go. The main clause supplied the fact that he left while the subordinate clause supplies the time he left Punctuation marks can provide some clues to meaning within a sentence. Notice the difference in meaning between the following two sentences: 1. The man, whom I met, is your brother. 2. The man whom I met is your brother. The two sentences can be interpreted as follows: 1. The man is your brother. I met him. 2. The man is your brother. It was him I met and no one else. Some words or phrases function as signal devices or connectors within sentences, between sentences and between paragraphs. Wherever they are present, you must note that they point to certain directions of meaning. Some of these words and phrases are provided in the table below. Words/word group Direction of meaning and, as well as, besides, not only…but also, in addition, also, etc. Addition despite, but, in spite of, though, etc. Contrast in the same way, like, unlike, in the same vein, etc. Comparison until, if, when, unless, in as much as Condition because, as a result, hence, due to Cause/effect relations  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading) Read the following paragraph and answer the questions after it: We used to visit them and they used to welcome us. In addition, they prepared very good meals because they were naturally hospitable. However, we stopped visiting them because their mother took our father’s land. Identify the connectors and signal devices in the paragraph and indicate their meaning direction. Feedback The connectors and signal devices in the paragraph are: 1. In addition – addition 2. Because - cause/effect relations 3. However – contrast 4. Because - cause/effect relations As there are individual differences, so also we have different bad reading habits. Some of the bad reading habits can be eliminated fairly easily when identified. This involves moving the head as the reader follows the words from the left side to the right side of the page. Such movement slows down the reading speed. Therefore, while reading, avoid moving your head from left to right. Do not point to words with your fingers, a ruler, pencil or pen as you read. Besides slowing down your reading speed, it may cause you to focus your attention on the wrong information. By pointing to individual words, you are prevented from taking in whole phrases and sentences, which inhibit your understanding of the writer’s thoughts and ideas. This refers to the act of whispering while reading. It is another common fault in reading. Do not pronounce aloud each word as it is read. Vocalisation tends to tie reading speed to speaking speed. This adversely affects reading rate and therefore, comprehension. This is very undesirable in mature readers. GST101 Use of English Sub-vocalization differs from vocalisation in that the reader does not actually move any part of the vocal apparatus, but he pronounces the words to himself in his mind. Excessively slow reading speed is often a clue to some type of vocalisation. Therefore, train yourself to speed up your reading by avoiding concentrating on the pronunciation of individual words. Regression refers to glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences that one has already read. It is a bad habit which often results from lack of concentration. All readers make some regressions. However, while good readers make very few, bad readers make many. This refers to the way in which the eyes move across the lines of prints. When the eyes are reading a line of print, they make a series of short movements along the line, stopping after every one or two words for a very brief pause. Each time the eye stops, it sees a certain span of material and this span is called the "span of recognition". Poor readers have a small recognition span in that they can only recognise one or two words at one glance. You should train yourself to have wider span of recognition so as to be able to take several words per eye fixation. Inadequate brain development, vision or hearing defects can cause reading deficiencies. However, they account for only a small percentage of all reading problems. This might be beyond a reader to correct. In this case, professional attention should be sought. o Regression causes readers to…………. a. go back always to reading what has been read before b. move the head from left to right while reading c. whisper the words to himself while reading d. point at words while reading  The correct option is A (go back always to reading what has been read before) because the other options state other types of reading defects, not regression.  Study Session 3 | Language Skill (Reading) In this study session, we have discussed about reading, how to differentiate the types of reading, methods of reading, reading and comprehension, sentence analysis and comprehension, as well as how to identify and eliminate bad reading habits. SAQ 3.1 (tests Learning Outcome 3.1) Abu is an extensive reader while Taila is an intensive reader. Can you explain these two? SAQ 3.2 (tests Learning Outcome 3.2) As explained in the study session, there are basically two types of reading skills. Can you discuss the two? SAQ 3.3 (tests Learning Outcome 3.3) Why do you think sentences should be analysed? SAQ 3.3 (tests Learning Outcome 3.3) Can you discuss at least three bad reading habits that you know? GST101 Use of English In this study session, we will be exposed to the strategies for developing effective writing skills. As a writer, we must first of all be definite about the goal of our writing assignment and the type of writing we want to embark upon. Thus, we need to plan, choose a topic, narrow the topic and prepare a dominant thesis or thesis statement. When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 4.1 define writing 4.2 highlight types of writing 4.3 discuss summary writing Four Cardinal Rules of Language Skill (Writing) What is Writing Writing Narrative Descriptive Types of Writing Exository Arguement Types of Summary Summary Writing Requirements for a Good Summary  Study Session 4 | Language Skill (Writing) This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an additional two hours for revision. Writing Summary When we talk about writing , many student we look at it as if, “is it not what we do everyday”? Yes, we all write everyday but do we possess the skills of writing? This study session will be discussing the basics of writing skill. Before we go further, what exactly is writing? Simply put, writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language, but a tool developed by human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. Figure 4.1 Culture of Egypt kept with Writing As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, GST101 Use of English codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. There are basic regulations that guide your writing. To be a successful writer, you must adhere to four cardinal rules. These are discussed below: 1. Unity : This implies oneness of the subject matter of a piece of writing. This requires the agreement of all your ideas and points. Contradictions to the central message and sub-themes must be avoided. Sub-themes must be in agreement with the main theme. Unity means oneness. It describes writing that sticks to a central idea, theme, or story. Good writing doesn't wander around like a gossip at a dinner party, it stays focused like an astronomer at his telescope. 2. Coherence : This requires you to ensure that all ideas, thoughts and points expressed in your writing are arranged logically in sequential order. This makes your write-up to be connected and to make sense. To achieve this, you need the use of linking expressions or connectives such as and, but, or, whenever, wherever, whoever, etc. You also need sequence markers such as first, next, and firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, finally, etc. 3. Originality of Ideas : The content of your text shows how creative you are. In other words, you must not simply reproduce the work of another writer. When you use extracts of other authors’ works or ideas, you must give them the credit by making reference to them. This makes your readers able to distinguish between the ideas of other writers and your original ideas. 4. Mechanical Accuracy : This is a very crucial aspect of your writing and it must be given good attention. The accurate use of the mechanics of language such as tenses, concord, spelling and punctuation marks makes your writing beautiful. Thus, to be successful in writing, you need proper mastery and accurate use of the mechanics of language as errors of spelling, punctuation, tenses, concord and others discourage readers.  Study Session 4 | Language Skill (Writing) o The basic regulations for writing are: a. unity, dominant thesis, mechanical accuracy, coherence b. paragraph development, unity, mechanical accuracy c. mechanical accuracy, originality of ideas, Unity, dominant thesis d. coherence, unity, originality of ideas and mechanical accuracy  The answer is d (coherence, unity, originality of ideas and mechanical accuracy) because they are the four cardinal rules of writing. Writing could be classified into several types. As a writer, you may simply want to tell a story or give a description of a scene, an object, a place, etc. You may also want to enlighten readers on an issue or postulate an argument with a view to taking a position on a controversial subject. You will be learning about the four major essay types, which are; narrative, descriptive, expository and argumentative. A narration is when you give an account of an event. Therefore, narrative writing is a type of writing that involves the description of events. It involves giving a report of what has happened with a view to leaving an impression on your reader. It could either be a fiction or a non-fiction. While a non-fiction is a true story of what actually happened (in real life), a fiction is simply your imagination expressed in writing. The hallmark of a narrative essay is a sense of direction or focus. You must be able to express, in clear terms, what led to what, and in what circumstances. You must clearly state the principal actors (characters) in the narration and their respective roles. GST101 Use of English Figure 4.2 A Narrative Writing (4.bp.blogspot.com) In a descriptive writing , you aim at presenting a vivid picture of a person, an object, a scene etc., to the mind of your reader in such a way that your reader has a good idea of that person, object or scene. With your power of description, your reader becomes capable of properly appraising whatever you have described. Descriptive writing is rather difficult to separate from other forms of writing as there are elements of description in, for instance, a narration, exposition and an argumentation. There are two main types of description. These are objective description and subjective description. In objective description, you are concerned with actual details without your sentiment or emotion attached to the writing. You also present facts without bias. Subjective description, however, reflects your emotional attachment. For instance “the man was killed” is not as emotive as “the man was murdered”. This is a kind of writing in which you explain a concept, an idea, a process or a procedure. You encounter the phenomenon of exposition in your day-to-day use of language through what you say to or hear from people, through newspapers or the electronic media, on church pulpits and in mosques, etc. Your expository writing is aimed mainly at educating and informing your reader as well as offering them explanation and definition of things that are probably not clear to them.  Study Session 4 | Language Skill (Writing) Here are possible topics on expository writing for you to consider: 1. How to Construct a Bridge; 2. A Look into Heavens; 3. A Dictator; 4. Dividends of Democracy and 5. Factors Responsible for Nigeria's Economic Depression. In this kind of writing, you engage in a reasoned discussion aimed at securing your reader’s acceptance of your opinion on an issue. You sometimes engage in reasoned discussions on topics that appear controversial with a view to persuading your addressees to agree with you. An argument therefore has to do with reasoning and drawing a conclusion from one or more premises. There are two types of reasoning. These are: 1. Inductive reasoning and 2. Deductive reasoning In inductive reasoning, you make a generalization based on the evidence you present. You can arrive at a conclusion based on a number of instances. If for instance, it is discovered that in a particular community, policemen have colluded with armed robbers to unleash terror on transporters and passengers on many occasions and it happens that another robbery incident occurs, one can conclude, by inductive reasoning, that policemen must have colluded with armed robbers in that particular robbery incident as they have always done. A single instance of robbery operation with the involvement of the police is, however, not sufficient to make a generalization that policemen have always colluded with armed robbers in that community. Possible Topics for Argumentative Writing 1. Developing Countries are not ripe for Democracy. 2. Co-educational Institutions are better than Non-co-educational Institutions. 3. Second Term in Office should be Discouraged in the Polity. 4. Capital Punishment should be Abolished. GST101 Use of English A summary is a short statement that gives the main information about something, without giving all the details. In writing, summary is a short piece of writing in which you present the main information contained in a text. It is a compressed form of a longer text without losing its original ideas and without adding to it. As you read in the previous section, there is a vital link between reading comprehension and summary. Your ability to write effective summary is dependent on your reading comprehension. The diagram below illustrates this link. Figure 4.3 Link between Effective Reading, Comprehension and Effective Summary There are two types of summary; guided summary and unguided summary. Let us take a look at each of them. 1. Guided Summary: This is a controlled type of summary. When you are engaged in this kind of summary, you are compelled to adhere to specific instructions regarding the number o