Module 3: Specializations in Civil Engineering 3.1 Structural Engineering PDF

**Module 3: Specializations in Civil Engineering** 3.1 Structural Engineering Group 3 Ancheta, Arlin Cañeta, Venice Abegail A. Dullon, Crisalie Malay, Zaldy Mapa Jr. Tombale, Ronato *Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE) 1-B* **WHAT IS STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING?** It is a branch of...

**Module 3: Specializations in Civil Engineering** 3.1 Structural Engineering Group 3 Ancheta, Arlin Cañeta, Venice Abegail A. Dullon, Crisalie Malay, Zaldy Mapa Jr. Tombale, Ronato *Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE) 1-B* **WHAT IS STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING?** It is a branch of civil engineering that is concerned with the structural design of man-made structures. It is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing safe and economical structures. - It involves mathematics, physics, materials science, and empirical knowledge to evaluate how various materials and designs perform. These insights are then applied to create structural systems that are functional, cost-effective, and fit for their intended purpose while staying within budget constraints. It focuses more on the framework of structures, and on designing those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment. \- It involves creating designs that ensure structures can withstand various forces such as gravity, wind, and earthquakes. The ultimate goal is to ensure safety, functionality, and stability. → To better understand structural engineering, note that its principles were used thousands of years ago in constructing structures like the pyramids in Egypt and the Acropolis in Greece. In other words, in the field of structural engineering, you ensure that structures don't fall down or collapse. **HOW TO BECOME A STRUCTURAL ENGINEER** Educational Pathway 1.Bachelor's Degree in Civil Engineering: The journey begins with obtaining a Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering. This undergraduate program provides essential knowledge in mathematics, physics, and engineering principles. It serves as the foundation for understanding how structures behave and are constructed. 2.Graduate Studies: After earning a bachelor's degree, aspiring structural engineers can further their education by pursuing a Master's degree in Structural Engineering. These programs, often recognized by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), offer specialized courses in structural analysis, design, and advanced materials. One may become a structural engineer if they are recognized by one of the following: Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) -ASEP is a prestigious organization for structural engineers in the Philippines. Being recognized by ASEP is an important milestone in a structural engineer\'s career. ASEP provides its members with opportunities for continuing education and access to the latest industry standards and practices (Quinay and Acosta 2020). Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE) -PICE is another vital organization for civil engineers. It offers numerous resources for professional development, networking opportunities, and advocacy for engineers. Recognition by PICE can significantly enhance an engineer's professional reputation and credibility (Quinay and Acosta 2020). Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Recognized University (Graduate School -- Masters) -Being recognized by CHED is important for a structural engineer because it establishes credibility and professionalism by confirming that they meet industry standards. It ensures regulatory compliance, allowing them to practice legally and adhere to safety and quality regulations. Additionally, it can enhance career advancement opportunities, open doors to specialized training, and provide access to valuable professional networks and resources (Bukas Blog 2020). **WHAT DO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS DO?** Structural Engineers "design roof framing (beams, rafters, joists, trusses), floor framing (floor decks, joists, beams, trusses, girders), as well as arches, columns, braces, frames, foundations and walls," according to the National Council of Structural Engineers Association. In bridges, they design the deck, or riding surface, girders or stingers, and piers. The materials they use include steel, concrete, wood, masonry, and aluminum. Engineers design structures that must resist the forces of gravity, earthquakes, high winds, water, soil erosion, collisions and blast explosions. According to STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING: BUILDING STABILITY - Outeng. (2022), 1. Structural engineers often work alongside civil engineers and architects as part of a construction team. 2. When building, particularly bridges, designers must take into account the conditions of terrain, wind, water and traffic volume. Structural engineers consider all of these factors and provide technical advice on the project. 3. Structural engineers become experts at solving problems, meeting challenges and providing creative solutions. According to Team, G. C. (n.d.), Structural Engineers calculate stability, strength and rigidity and make sure the right materials are used for each project, whether it is a new-build, conversion or renovation. **HOW DO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS ENSURE BUILDING STABILITY?** According to STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING: BUILDING STABILITY - Outeng. (2022), Designing and analysing gravity support and the lateral force resistance of buildings, bridges, power plants, electrical towers, dams, and other large structures that are part of our modern life. Gravity refers to vertical loads and lateral force to horizontal loads. A structure must be designed so that as a system, it can resist all loads intended to act upon it. A structural engineer will focus on frameworks, designing those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and so that they remain safe, stable and secure throughout their use. Analysing blueprints, maps, reports, and topographical and geological data; estimating the cost and quantities of materials, equipment and labour; computing load and grade requirements, water flow rates, and material stress factors to determine design specifications; inspecting project sites to monitor progress and ensure the project is being constructed according to design specifications; conducting studies of traffic patterns or environmental conditions to identify potential problems and assess how they will affect Designers can help buildings withstand quake shocks by adding a flexible steel skeleton, or fitting a \'base isolation\' system to separate the building from its foundations. **STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING BASICS** These are the essential information regarding Structural Engineering, particularly for those individuals who have invested money in a building or structurebe 1\. Loads In structural engineering, loads are forces that structures must be designed to resist. These loads create stresses on the load-bearing elements of the structure. There are two primary types of loads: vertical and horizontal. Vertical Loads: These include the weight of structural materials, finishes, furniture, people, and environmental factors such as snow or rain. Horizontal Loads: These are forces that act horizontally, such as wind pressure, soil weight against walls, and seismic forces from earthquakes. 2\. Building Materials Structures can be constructed using various types of building materials, each with unique properties, characteristics, and costs. The choice of material depends on the type, appearance, and budget of the structure. The most common building materials are wood, reinforced concrete, steel, and masonry. 2.1. Wood Wood is a naturally available, economically viable material that is lightweight and easy to work with. It also provides good insulation, making it ideal for homes and residential buildings. Different types of wood have varying strengths and properties, influencing their suitability for different applications. A significant drawback of wood is its flammability, which requires additional fire-proofing measures, which can increase costs. Wood is most suitable for structures with smaller loads and shorter spans between load-bearing elements. 2.2. Reinforced Concrete Reinforced Concrete is a composite material made of concrete and steel reinforcing (also called rebar). Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension, which is why steel rebar is embedded to resist tension loads. It is highly versatile and used in a wide range of structures, including tall multi-story buildings, bridges, roads, and so many other applications. Reinforced concrete can be cast on-site or pre-cast in a controlled environment before installation. Despite its labor-intensive nature, reinforced concrete is desirable due to its durability, strength, and excellent fire resistance. 2.3. Steel Steel is one of the strongest building materials, with exceptional strength in both tension and compression. It has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it ideal for the structural framework of tall buildings and large industrial facilities. Structural steel comes in various standard shapes, such as angles, I beams, and C-channels, which can be welded or bolted together to form structures that can withstand large forces and deformations. While steel is relatively expensive, it is quick to install and supports large loads without occupying a lot of space, which is advantageous for maximizing usable building space. 2.4. Masonry Masonry construction involves individual units, such as concrete blocks, bonded together with mortar. Masonry is strong in compression, making it suitable for load-bearing walls. Steel reinforcing can be added to masonry walls to resist tension or bending due to lateral loads, and grout can be used to increase the strength of the structure. Other masonry materials include brick, stone, and glass blocks. Masonry is durable and easy to construct, but its properties limit its use in certain applications. **Stress** Structural engineers design structures based on the stresses imposed on load-bearing elements. Stress is determined by the magnitude of the load and the geometry of the element. Each material has different stress limits, and understanding these limits is crucial for structural safety. **Stress** is defined as force applied over an area. A load spread over a smaller area results in higher stress, while a load spread over a larger area results in lower stress. The primary types of stresses that structural engineers design for include: Bending, also called flexural stress, arises when a material is subjected to a bending load or force. This type of stress occurs when structures or components, such as beams, bridges, and columns, are subjected to loads that cause them to bend or flex. (McClements & Lichtig, 2024) 1\. Compression: When an outside force is exerted to compress or squeeze a thing, (McClements & Lichtig, 2024) 2\. Tension --is a state of stress in which a material pulls apart. (Tension, 2022) 3\. Torsion, commonly known as the twist force, is a force provided to a building component or an object that causes one end to twist to the other end. Hassan, M. (2023) 4\. Shear is a measurement of how easily a force applied causes one plane in the material to move or deform along another. In real terms, a solid object's shape is deformed when a shear force is applied, allowing various material layers to move past one another. (Lichtig, 2024) 5\. Bearing refers to the pressure at which two distinct bodies come into contact. (JoVE, 2024) Beams, Joist and Trusses These are the horizontal members that resist vertical loads on a floor or roof structure. Beams, joists, and trusses transfer load to the vertical members of the structure. Joists are often smaller and lighter than beams. Joists transfer load to larger beams that take load to vertical columns. Usually, the deeper the beam, joist, or truss, the longer it can span without deflecting too much or becoming overstressed. Trusses are an economical option for long spans and are built up of multiple horizontal, vertical, and diagonal elements that are placed in either compression or tension. Trusses are often used in the construction of roofs in homes and in bridges. Columns These are the vertical, often slender, members that resist axial loads from a floor or roof structure. A beam transfers its load into columns, which take the load down to the foundation. Columns are most often loaded in compression; unless there is uplift on a structure, they are loaded in tension. Load Bearing Walls This is a wall in a structure that transfers vertical load from a floor or roof structure down to the foundation or structure below. Lateral Load Resisting System This is what stabilizes a building and provides bracing in order to prevent the structure from collapsing under an earthquake or wind loading. These could be in the form of steel bracing, solid walls, stair or elevator shafts, rigid connections, and floor or roof structures. Connections This is a critical part of any structure where load is transferred from one structural element to another. It could be between two structural elements with the same material or two different materials. Examples of connections include bolts and welds for steel, nails and screws for wood, and anchors and studs for concrete and masonry. Foundations The loads that a structure is designed to resist need to be transferred to the ground below the earth's surface. Foundations are the element of the structure that transfers the building loads to the soil below, either near the earth's surface or deep into the ground. Footings are an example of a shallow foundation and are the foundation of choice for lightly loaded structures such as a house. Piles are examples of deep foundations and are often the foundation of choice for heavily loaded structures, such as high-rise buildings. Building Codes Building codes are rules and requirements that must be followed when designing a structure. They will tell you the loads the building should be designed to resist based on occupancy and geographical location. The codes are based on testing and experience and are ultimately there to protect the public and ensure a building is safe for people to occupy. Structural Drawings Structural drawings are the blueprints that contractors use to build a structure. These drawings have information as to what materials are used and how they come together to form the structure. Structural drawings often include plans, details, sections, and general notes or specifications. Load Transfer and Load Path Structural engineers need to make sure they design a load path that can safely transfer the load from its point of application through the structure all the way to the foundation, where the structure meets the earth's surface. An example of a load path when designing a house could be that if snow is applied to a roof, the load will enter the roof joists or trusses and be transferred to beams, which will transfer loads to vertical columns or walls that will bear on a foundation that takes the load into the ground below. Another example would be a gymnast on a balancing beam. The weight of the gymnast gets transferred into the balancing beam, then into the supports on each end, and down into the floor structure. The closer the gymnast is to a support, the higher the load the support will attract. Factor of Safety These are used in the design of structures to account for uncertainty in the load, strength and quality of material, and workmanship. **PHASES OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROJECTS** 1\. Planning Phase. This usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the possible types of structures that may be feasible, and the types of materials to be used. This phase may also involve consideration of nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics, the environmental impact of the structure, and so on. 2\. Preliminary Structural Design. The sizes of various members of the structural system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure. 3\. Estimation of Loads. It involves the determination of all the loads that can be expected to act on the structure. 4\. Structural Analysis. The values of the loads are used to carry out analysis of the structure in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various points of the structure. 5\. Safety and Serviceability Checks. The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If these requirements are satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications are prepared, and the construction phase begins. 6\. Revised Structural Design. If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised, and phases 3through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied. **REFERENCES** Noah Moscovitch, M. E.-M. (2019). STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING BASICS. From https://structuralengineeringbasics.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/05/Ultimate-Guide-to-Structural-Engineering Basics-2.pdf Structural Engineering. (2020, October 20). From https://www.youtube.com/\@bebangmapagmahal6658 Structural Engineering. (2020, October 13). From https://www.youtube.com/\@gerrythelion136 TWI Global. (n.d.). Structural engineering FAQs. Retrieved August 12, 2024, from https://www.twi global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/structural-engineering Structural Engineering Basics. (n.d.). What is structural engineering? Retrieved August 12, 2024, from https://structuralengineeringbasics.com/what-is-structural-engineering/ (Quinay and Acosta 2020): Structural Engineering https://ice.upd.edu.ph/structural-engineering/ (Bukas Blog 2020): A Complete Guide On How To Become An Engineer In The Philippines.https://bukas.ph/blog/a-complete-guide-on-how-to-become-an-engineer-in-the-philippines/ Team, G. C. (n.d.). What does a structural engineer do? (Job Description). Go Construct. https://www.goconstruct.org/construction-careers/what-jobs-are-right-for-me/structural engineer/\#:\~:text=Structural%20engineers%20ensure%20structures%20can,%2Dbuild%2C%20conversion%20or% 20renovation. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING: BUILDING STABILITY -- Outeng. (n.d.). https://www.outeng.co.za/blogs/post/structural-engineering-building-stability Hassan, M. (2023). Torsional Shear Stress: Overview and Formula. https://study.com/academy/lesson/torsional shear-stress formula.html\#:\~:text=The%20torsion%20force%20(sometimes%20referred,the%20object%20or%20structural%20 member. JoVE. (2024, July 13). Bearing stress: - JoVE. https://www.jove.com/science-education/15581/bearing stress\#:\~:text=Bearing%20stress%20refers%20to%20the,force%20back%20onto%20the%20bolt. Lichtig, A. (2024, August 8). Shear Stress: Learn the basics. Xometry. https://www.xometry.com/resources/materials/shear stress/\#:\~:text=Shear%20stress%20occurs%20when%20the,acting%20parallel%20to%20the%20surface. McClements, D., & Lichtig, A. (2024, August 8). Bending Stress: A Comprehensive guide. Xometry. https://www.xometry.com/resources/materials/bending stress/\#:\~:text=Bending%20stress%20is%20a%20fundamental,tensile%20forces%20within%20the%20material. McClements, D., & Lichtig, A. (2024, August 9). What to know about Compressive Stress. https://www.xometry.com/resources/3d-printing/what-is-compressive stress/Tension. (2022). Designing Buildings. https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Tension