Language and Humans PDF

**Language and Humans** **English Ed 106 TTHS 10:10-11:30** **Group 2** ***I. Features of Human Language*** Communication systems are exchanges between two stations which are the transmitter and receiver. There are various communication systems such as **plant communication** (mycorrhizal networ...

**Language and Humans** **English Ed 106 TTHS 10:10-11:30** **Group 2** ***I. Features of Human Language*** Communication systems are exchanges between two stations which are the transmitter and receiver. There are various communication systems such as **plant communication** (mycorrhizal networks), **artificial communication** (computer networks), **animal communication**, and human communication. The first communication system that comes to mind is probably ***human communication***.***\ Charles Hockett*** is an American linguist who distinguished 13 unique features that characterize human language. These features differentiate human communication from other communication systems. These 13 features are:\ ***1. Vocal-auditory channel***\ - Language is [vocally] transmitted by speakers and auditorily received by listeners.\ - Exceptions: Writing and sign language fall under manual-visual channel. ***2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception***\ - Human language signal is sent [out in all directions]; Listener hears the sound coming from a [particular direction] \- For spoken language, the sound perpetuates as a [waveform] that expands from the point of origin (the mouth) in all directions (this is why a person can stand in the middle of a room and be heard by everyone). \- Sounds that are coming from in front is understood clearer than those from behind.\ ***3. Rapid fading (transitoriness)*** \- Speech waveforms fade rapidly and cannot be heard after they fade.\ - This [temporal] nature of language signals requires humans to receive and interpret speech sounds at the time of utterance.\ - Writing and audio-recordings can be used to record human language (reading the written form, or by playing the audio-record)\ ***4. Interchangeability\ ***- Humans can [transmit and receive identical linguistic signals], and so are able to [reproduce any linguistic message they understand].\ - Allows for the interlocutory [roles of 'speaker' and 'listener'] to [alternate]. ***5. Total feedback***\ - Humans have an [understanding of what they are communicating] to others.\ ***6. Specialization***\ - Language signals are emitted for the sole [purpose of communication].\ - Language signals are intentional, and not just a side effect of another behavior.\ ***7. Semanticity***\ - Specific language signals [represent specific meanings]; the associations are 'relatively fixed'.\ - Example: A single object is represented by different language signals (i.e. words in different languages.)\ ***8. Arbitrariness***\ - There is [no intrinsic or logical connection] between the form of specific language signals and the nature of the specific meanings they represent. Instead, the signal and the meaning are linked by either [convention or instinct].\ ***9. Discreteness\ ***- Language signals are composed of basic units and are perceived as [distinct and individuated]. \ - Language can be said to be built up from [discrete units] (e.g., phonemes in human language).\ - Exchanging such discrete units causes a change in the meaning of a signal\ - Abrupt change, rather than a continuous change of purpose.\ ***10. Displacement***\ - Allows communication [beyond the immediate context of time and space].\ - Enables discussion of the past, future, hypothetical scenarios, and abstract concepts.\ - [Bridges the gap] between [reality] and the [realm of the mind].\ ***11. Productivity***\ - Combines familiar linguistic elements in new ways.\ - Expresses [innovative ideas] and [adapts to changing circumstances].\ - Drives the ongoing [evolution of language].\ - Language as a [dynamic] and [ever-evolving art form].\ ***12. Traditional Transmission\ ***- Language as a [bridge connecting generations].***\ ***- Intergenerational continuity of culture and knowledge.***\ ***- Language is a shared heritage passed down from one generation to the next.***\ ***- Transmission of accumulated wisdom, stories, and cultural nuances.***\ ***- Language evolves with each generation.\ ***13. Duality of Patterning:***\ - Central to [language\'s complexity].***\ ***- Allows the organization of meaning, from phonemes to sentences.***\ ***- Exhibits a hierarchical structure with nested meaningful units.***\ ***- Facilitates the conveyance of subtlety, precision, and depth in communication. ***II. Halliday's Language Functions\ Language Function*** refers to the various ways in which language is used to communicate messages, ideas, emotions, and information. It is an essential aspect of understanding how language works as a system of communication, enabling individuals to convey their thoughts, needs, and wants effectively with others.\ ***Michael Halliday***, a renowned linguist, made significant contributions to the study of language functions. He proposed that language serves several functions beyond simple communication.\ Here are Halliday's Language Functions:\ ***1. Instrumental:*** Using language as an instrument to [get what is desired].***\ 2. Regulator:*** Language used to [regulate], influence, or control other [people's behavior].\ ***3. Interactional:*** Language used to [interact] with the people around the environment and form relationships.\ ***4. Personal:*** Expressing [emotions and opinions].\ ***5. Heuristic:* Once children have recognised the boundary between themselves and the environment, they can start exploring what is around them**. They become curious so they start [seeking information and asking questions].\ ***6. Imaginative:*** Expressing [creative language] such as storytelling.\ ***7. Representational:*** Sharing [facts or information]. ***III. Non-human Communication\ *** Non-human communication is the way anything non-human communicates without the use of words. As mentioned beforehand when discussing communication systems, some examples are **plant communication** (mycorrhizal networks), **artificial communication** (computer networks), and animal communication. ***Plant communication:*** Plants communicate through mycorrhizal networks by exchanging nutrients, water, and chemical signals via fungal connections in the soil. It\'s considered communication because plants use this system to send warnings, share resources, and respond to environmental changes, influencing each other\'s behavior.\ ***Artificial communication:*** Artificial communication refers to the use of technology or systems created by humans to send and receive messages. This includes methods like digital communication, radio signals, or even programmed interactions between machines. ***Animal communication:*** Animal communication have similarities to human language and they have a mental capacity to perceive and respond to particulars.\ EXAMPLES:\ - The songs of birds\ - The roars of lions\ - Croaks of frogs\ ***Types of Signals in Nonhuman Communication***\ ***- Pheromones*** --- chemicals; a secreted chemical signal to trigger a response in another individual of the same species.\ ***- Auditory cues*** --- sounds; used to convey warning, attract mates, defend territories and coordinate group behaviors.\ ***- Visual cues***---sight to see symbols and the environment around them\ ***-Tactile cues*** --- touch; used to comfort, establish dominance, and to establish bonds ***IV. Transmission in Animal Language and Animal Consciousness\ ***Animals consists of different creatures and they have their ways of communicating. To understand them, we need to know how to better communicate with animals. In order to know how animals communicate, these are few things to remember:\ **Animal communication** is much the same as how humans communicate.\ Animals also have their **distinct ways on how to communicate**, similar to as humans that there is a sender and a receiver. There are four types on how animals express and communicate themselves:\ 1. **Auditory communication:** When we talk about auditory, it is basically our sense of hearing. With animals, they tend to **communicate using sounds**. Some animals use this as a sign of danger while some use them for their mates. Some animals don't have vocal organs but rather have complex auditory communication methods.\ **2. Visual communication**: This refers to our sense of sight. In animals, visual communication is based on **visible signals** such as gestures, facial expressions, camouflaging and the like. The most commonly used visual communication for animals is their gestures depending on what type of animal they are. Another visual signal seen in animal communication is the change in coloration.\ **3. Tactile communication:** Tactile communication requires touching and the participants to be nearby and it is said to be the **most usual form of animal communication**. This communication is said to be safe to happen in the same group of species although it's not rare to happen in different group of species.\ **4. Chemical communication:** Chemical communication in animals includes pheromone, a chemical substance only animals are able to release that affects the behavior or psychology of other animals of their own species. There are different types of **pheromones** released by animals: releaser pheromones, primer pheromones, alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, and sex pheromones.\ Similar with humans, animals have their own ways to communicate in order to satisfy their own and different needs for daily lives. Also, animals have the capability to adapt how other animals around them communicate, making them understand each other. Animals may not have the capability to speak their thoughts or feelings verbally the way humans do, still they have their distinct ways in expressing.\ **Animal Consciousness** is the **awareness of animals** in any object or can be within themselves. Consciousness is also defined as something that being able to feel and have a sense of selfhood. There are philosophers who argued about animal consciousness **Rene Descartes**\ - A prominent 17th-century French philosopher, is criticized for his views on animals, particularly his belief that **animals are not conscious in the same way humans are.**\ - He also has two views on animals:\ **Automata Theory:** Descartes argued that animals lack a rational mind and consciousness which he believes that their reaction and responses within things are only based on their stimuli.\ **Lack of Rationality:** Descartes argued that animal don't have feelings in such a way that they don't experience suffering or pain as humans do.\ **Thomas Nagel**\ -He addresses the challenge of understanding consciousness from a subjective perspective and argues for a specific view about what it means for an organism to be conscious.\ - He said that an organism is conscious \"if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism---something it is like for the organism\". In this view, there are two implications which are: **Subjective Experience** which pertains to the experience of how to be like an organism and **The Bat Example** this pertains to the bats who have vast difference of sensory experience from humans.\ There are areas or distinctions on how we can say that animals are conscious:\ 1. **Adaptability**: In observing animals, some of them tend to adapt their behavior to the changing circumstances of the environment where they belong with.\ **2. Critical Thinking**: Some might argue that animals have the capacity to reason, think, analyze and make logical decisions.**\ 3. Self-awareness:** Animals have the ability to recognize oneself through a mirror (Mirror Test).\ **4. "Language" Capacity:** Animal language is a complex system where animals can use symbols or signals in a structured way, somewhat like human language. In animal communication, it is the way animals share information with each other using sounds, movements, or signals. ***V. Experiments on Language and Animals\ ***There have been several experiments when it comes to teaching animals the human language. However, the success and extent of language acquisition in animals have varied, and there is ongoing debate and research in this field. Here are some notable experiments and attempts to teach language to animals:***\ Viki: The Speaking Chimp\ ***- Adopted by Keith and Catherine Hayes of the Yerkes Laboratory of Primate Biology\ - Raised in the same manner as a human infant(1940s) \- Vicky learnt to utter four words; "mama", "papa", "up", "cup" where the pronunciation was still difficult to understand. \- Donald, Cathy and Keith's son, has been fluent in language.\ ***Washoe: The Signing Chimp\ ***- Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1996)\ - First non-human to learn to communicate using American Sign Language (ASL)***\ ***- Taught sign language to a baby chimp***\ ***- Early signs: Open (by throwing out of the arms)***\ ***- Learned a vocabulary of about 130 signs and displayed 2 and 3 word utterances (ex. "go sweet" -- she wanted to be taken to the raspberry bushes; "open food drink" -- she wanted something out of refrigerator)***\ Son of Washoe: Loulis\ ***- Washoe's 'adopted' son***\ ***- Learned signs from Washoe that was demonstrating signs for Loulis and even helping to mould Loulis's hands into the proper configurations\ - The Gardners cross-fostered four more chimpanzees Moja, Pili, Tatu, and Dar\ - All of the chimpanzees acquired and used signs in ways that paralleled human children\ - As the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute (CHCI) on the campus of Central Washington University (CWU), their home for decades, was preparing to close, Tatu (37) and Loulis (35) moved to the Fauna Foundation in August 2013\ - Chimpanzees gesture naturally and use the gestures of community members which have meanings and are used to signal specific things***\ Lana: The Computer Chimp\ ***- Duane Rumbaugh\ - Tim Gill taught her how to use the keyboard***\ ***- Taught a simple artificial language called Yerkish (Yerkish is a constructed language designed for communication between non-human primates, particularly chimpanzees. - It was created in the 1970s as a part of efforts to teach chimpanzees to communicate with humans using symbolic systems. Yerkish is not a natural language but rather a form of symbolic language developed for experimental purposes.)***\ ***- Named after the research program which was called the Language Analogue Project (This project aimed to explore and understand the cognitive and linguistic capabilities of non-human primates.)***\ ***- Lana had to press certain keys in the right sequence to make request and consequently receive desired items (ex. 'Please machine give milk' 'Please Tim give ball')***\ ***- Learned hundreds of sentences by rote***\ ***- Additionally, as Wallman (1992) -- 'there is no evidence to suggest that Lana had any notion of the meaning of "please"***\ Nim Chimpsky*** ***\ ***- Interpreted by his teachers as consisting of frequent repetitions of a small number of all-purpose signs that were largely appropriate to any context***\ ***- There are no reports of him engaging in the creative combining of signs\ ***Sarah: The Magnetic Token Chimp\ ***- David Premack (University of Pennsylvania)***\ ***- Premack gave Sarah 130 plastic tokens with magnets so that they could be manipulated easily. These included tokens for the names of colours, for different fruits, and for actions***\ Koko: The Signing Gorilla\ ***- Francine Patterson***\ ***- Koko received speech input from her trainers as well as sign and speech exposure, with help in molding the hands for sign making.***\ ***- Koko was productive in sign language. Koko could make new word to describe new objects by combining previously known ones.***\ ***- Koko had learned 500 or more sign words in total***\ ***- Koko was able to comprehend (uses signs for such purposes as to swear, rhyme, joke, and lie)***\ ***- Koko can refer to past incidents***\ Bottlenose Dolphins\ ***- John C. Lilly: (1960s)***\ ***- Teaching through sight and sound\ - Performed many audio experiments -- began to use computers to translate human words into dolphin whistles and to send messages***\ ***- Much of his experimental work has never been published and ended in the 1980s***\ ***- Louis M. Herman***\ ***- Dolphins have good memories and can mimic a wide variety of sounds\ - They can store new information and update old information rapidly***\ ***- Ability to understand sentences expressed in either an artificial acoustic or a visual language\ - Dolphins can learn rules and understand certain abstract concepts***\ ***- The level of understanding is measured by the accuracy and reliability with which the dolphin carries out the instructions (the dolphins gave correct responses about 80% of the time) ***Contrasts between human languages and animal communication:*** --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------ Human Language Animal Communication System Has grammaticality Has no grammaticality Structure dependent None structure dependent Recurrent (Novelty, creativity, multiplicity. Evolving) Repetitive (Lacks novelty, creativity, and multiplicity. Static) Cognitive as well as behavioral (Reason\ Only behavioral (Only instinct) and instinct) Open system (Anyone can respond) Close system (One active communicator) --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------ ***Conclusions:*\ - Language is a "power" that humans possess since they're the only creatures** endowed with language.**\ -** Animals do not have language, but they do have a communication mechanism. ***References:***\ Group 2 Handout Engl Ed 106. (n.d.). Language and Humans. University of the Cordilleras. [*https://uc-bcf.instructure.com/courses/43263/files/7856019?wrap=1*](https://uc-bcf.instructure.com/courses/43263/files/7856019?wrap=1)\ *Ahmed, E.S.A. (2015). Introduction to Communication Systems. Research Gate. *\ Samuel. Viola. Xinyi. (2014). Language Essence and Origins. Nanyang Technological University. \ Yang, A. (2022). Plants Can Talk. National Geographic. \ Aceto, G., Pescape, A. (2018). Machine Communication. Science Direct. Chang, N., Cress, S. (2013). Halliday's Model of Language Functions. Research Gate. [*https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hallidays-model-of-language-functions\_tbl2\_258162450*](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hallidays-model-of-language-functions_tbl2_258162450)\ \ \ Thwaite, A. (2019). Halliday's View of Child Language Learning: Has it Been Misinterpreted? Australian Journal of Teacher Education. [*https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4097&context=ajte*](https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4097&context=ajte)\ Wrench, J.S., Carter, N.M.P., Thweatt, K.S. (2022). Functions of Language. LibreTexts\ \ \ \ \ Social Sciences. *\ *Pepperberg, I.M. (2021). Nonhuman and Nonhuman-Human Communication: Some Issues and Questions. Frontiers in Psychology. **\ Durham, N.H. (2023). Tactile Communication. NatureWorks. [*https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/nwep3c.htm\#*](https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/nwep3c.htm) *How Do Animals Communicate: 4 Types of Animal Communication you Need to Know*. (2021). The Animal Care. *[\ ]*Cheung, Jordan. (2021). *What is Animal Consciousness?* Earth.org - Past \| Present \| Future. [*https://earth.org/what-is-animal-consciousness/*](https://earth.org/what-is-animal-consciousness/)[\ ]Thomas, E. (2020). Descartes on the Animal Within, and the Animals Without. *Canadian Journal of Philosophy*, *50*(8), 999--1014. [*https://doi.org/10.1017/can.2020.44*](https://doi.org/10.1017/can.2020.44)[\ ]*Search (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)*. (2020). Animal Consciousness. Stanford.edu. *[\ ]*Slurink, P. (2016). Consciousness as an Adaptation. Research Gate. [*https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312054791\_Consciousness\_as\_an\_adaptation\_What\_animals\_feel\_and\_why*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312054791_Consciousness_as_an_adaptation_What_animals_feel_and_why) Ekstrom, A.G. (2023). Viki's First Words: A Comparative Phonetics Case Study. Springer Link. [*https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10764-023-00350-1\#*](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10764-023-00350-1) Collins, E., Dombrausky, K., Jensvold, M.L. (2023). Sign Language Studies with Chimpanzees in Sanctuary. Primate Behavioral, Psychological, and Affective Research in Non-Laboratory Settings. [*https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/22/3486\#*](https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/22/3486) Marquez, J.R. (2018). The Lana Legacy. Georgia State University. [*https://news.gsu.edu/research-magazine/spring2018/the-lana-legacy/*](https://news.gsu.edu/research-magazine/spring2018/the-lana-legacy/) Main, D. (2018). Why Koko the Gorilla Mattered. 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