Basic Carpentry PDF

Group 1: Basic Carpentry Date: September 31, 2024 Alconcel, John Nomer Aganan, Yvan Joseph Angulo, Chloe Franchesca S. Añite, Lelaine Denise C. Yr./Section: BSCE - 1B I. INTRO TO BASIC CARPENTRY / WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS Carpentry involves the cut...

Group 1: Basic Carpentry Date: September 31, 2024 Alconcel, John Nomer Aganan, Yvan Joseph Angulo, Chloe Franchesca S. Añite, Lelaine Denise C. Yr./Section: BSCE - 1B I. INTRO TO BASIC CARPENTRY / WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS Carpentry involves the cutting, shaping and installation of wood for buildings and structures. Carpentry is a skilled trade which dates back thousands of years, but is still used widely in modern construction. Carpenters are often involved from the start of projects, constructing timber (wood) components of roofs, walls and floors in buildings, as well as working on the latter stages to construct window frames, skirting boards, doors and more. Carpentry is an integral role within construction, and is well suited for those who are good with their hands, enjoy using tools, and appreciate the feeling of pride in doing a good job.This course gives students a basic overview of general terms, tools, and techniques used in the field of carpentry. Learn how to safely use a wide range of hand and power tools while building a small structure such as a garden shed or playhouse. We'll go over house framing and layout while looking at the anatomy of a structure. Whether you're planning on building a house or just want to learn some basic skills, this course will help you gain the confidence you'll need. Types of carpentry Carpenters tend to specialise in one or two kinds of carpentry, especially when they’re working on larger construction projects. Let’s take a look at some of them. Formworkers Formworkers, sometimes known as concrete carpenters, are a specialised type of carpenter who construct formwork to support the building process. Formwork is the moulds that concrete is poured into to create bridges, staircases, foundations and beams for buildings, and much more. Formwork can be temporary or permanent, and is usually constructed using metal or wood. It is an essential part of the building process, and formworkers can demand high salaries. Framers Framers repair and build structures made of wood or wood products. They usually work early in a construction project, building what becomes the framework for the rest of the structure. Framers measure, cut and assemble the wood needed to build residential, commercial and industrial buildings. They can work on new construction projects, repairs or additions to existing structures. Cabinet makers Cabinet making is a highly specialised kind of carpentry. They build, repair and install wooden cabinets, furniture and fixtures. They are employed by custom furniture manufacturers, construction companies and cabinetmaking contractors, or they may be self-employed. Cabinet makers can construct custom furniture for clients or work on large-scale projects alongside other carpenters. Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It has been used for thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers (which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. The main physical properties of wood include: color, luster, texture, macro-structure, odor, moisture, shrinkage, internal stresses, swelling, cracking, warping, density, sound - electro - thermal conductivity. Сolor, shine, texture and macrostructure determine the appearance of wood. To break it down even further there are 4 main steps to processing wood. They are cutting, the planning, shaping, and the sanding. It is important that every one of these steps is organized and done right for the wood to be the best quality it can. There are 2 Types of Wood - Natural Vs Engineered Natural Wood is marketed in the form of beams, lamellas, boards and strips. By this term we mean wood as a raw material “in its pure state”, walang hinahalong kung ano at literal na kahoy as kahoy. Magtungo naman tayo sa classification of natural wood na nahahati sa dalawa Classification of NAtural Wood HardWood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived; these are usually broad-leaved. In temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwoods are not necessarily harder than softwoods. Characteristics Hardwoods have more complex structure than softwoods. Dark in colour. Expensive. Slower growth rate. Higher density. Heavy in weight. More fire resistant than softwood. Strong in compression and tension Examples Oak, Maple, Mahogany, Cherry, Rubber Wood. SoftWood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers. Softwood is the source of about 80% of the world’s production of timber. Softwoods are not necessarily softer than hardwoods. The woods of long life pine, douglas fir, and yew are much harder in the mechanical sense than several hardwoods. Characteristics Cheap compared to hardwood. Faster rate of growth. Lower Density. Softer than hardwood. Light in colour. Light in weight. Poor fire resistance. Strength in tension but weak in shear Examples Ash, Pine, Cedar, Red Wood Engineered Wood Engineered Wood is also called composite wood, man-made wood, or manufactured board. Include a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding or fixing the strands, particles, fibers, or veneer or boards of wood, together with adhesives, or other methods of fixation to form composite materials. Engineered wood products are used in a variety of applications, from home construction to commercial buildings to industrial products. The following are the examples: Plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or “plies” of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. This alternation of the grain is called cross-graining and has several important benefits: It reduces the tendency of wood to split when nailed at the edges. It reduces expansion and shrinkage, providing improved dimensional stability It makes the strength of the panel consistent across all directions. Blockboard is a wood based panel, made up of a core of softwood strips glued together. The strips may be up to about 28mm wide and are placed edge to edge and sandwiched between veneers of softwood, hardwood or thin MDF or particleboard, glued under high pressure. The internal strips are generally made of lightweight poplar wood or spruce. To achieve maximum strength, it is important to ensure that the core runs lengthways. It has very good screw holding. It has good resistance to warping. Veneers refers to thin slices of wood usually thinner than 3mm (1/8ince), that typically are glued onto core panels. Veneer is obtained either by “peeling” the trunk of a tree or by slicing large rectangular blocks of wood known as flitches. The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through the growth rings of a tree and depends upon the angle at which the wood is sliced. Laminates is the technique of manufacturing a material in multiple layers, so that the composite material achieves improved strength, stability, sound insulation, appearance or other properties from the use of differing materials. A laminate is usually permanently assembled by heat, pressure, welding, or adhesives. Particle Board also known as chipboard. It is manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust, and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. It is composite material. Medium Density Fiberboard made by breaking down hardwood or softwood residuals into wood fibres, often in a deliberator, combining it with wax and a resin binder, and forming panels by applying high temperature and pressure. MDF is generally denser than plywood. It is made up of separated fibres. Stronger and much denser than particle board. II. TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY 1.0 Hammer - It is a basic tool of the carpenter and is used as a striking tool, to drive nails and work various tools like chisel, nail punch, fix dowels etc. 1.1 The various parts of a hammer are shown below: Face: This is the primary striking surface used on a workpiece. Neck: The slightly curved area near the face. Peen/claw: The opposite side of the face, primarily used for bending or shaping. Cheek: The middle portion of the hammerhead. Eye hole: A crucial part that connects the head to the handle. Handle: The part of the hammer you hold onto. 1.2 There are different types of hammers used by carpenters for different works. Commonly the hammers used by carpenters are: a. Wooden Mallet - It is mainly used to strike the chisel for working. b. Claw Hammer - It is the main hammer of the carpenter and it weighs about 500 gm. It has poll on one side and claw on the other. The claw is used to pull out nails from the wood work, either which get bent during driving or required for some other reason. c. Warrington Hammer - It is the next heavier hammer, weighing about 250 gm and is used for medium heavy work of driving nails. d. Pin hammer - The weight of the Pin hammer is about 110 gm and is used to drive small nails or pins. The poll of the hammer is the main striking face and the Pin is to start the nail driving holding the nail between fingers. 2.0 Saws - The cutting ability of a saw blade depends upon three measurements, Rake Pitch Set The rake refers to the angle at which the teeth of the blade are ground. It can have three possible configurations: a. Positive rake: The teeth are angled forward, which makes the saw blade more aggressive and allows for faster cutting. b. Zero rake: The teeth are positioned at a neutral angle, offering a balance between cutting speed and control. c. Negative rake: The teeth are angled backward, providing more control, especially useful for harder materials or delicate cuts, but with slower cutting performance. Positive Zero Negative The pitch of a saw blade is the number of teeth per inch or (TPI) on the blade. This measurement determines the smoothness and speed of the cut: a. A higher TPI (more teeth per inch) results in a finer, smoother cut. b. A lower TPI (fewer teeth per inch) enables faster cutting but with a rougher finish. The set refers to the way the teeth are arranged or offset on the blade: a. In a straight set blade, the teeth are offset equally on each side, which can produce a smoother surface finish and tighter tolerances, making them suitable for cutting thin materials, precision cutting, or contour cutting. b. Fine-toothed blades may have a wavy set, where several teeth are offset in one direction and then the next set of teeth is offset in the opposite direction. This configuration allows for a smoother cut and is commonly used for cutting metal and finer materials. The set of the blade determines the width of the cut and helps control how efficiently the blade cuts through the material. 2.1 Saw Types a. Back (Tenon) Saw - A handsaw has a rectangular blade with a reinforcing rib along the back. This is used for more precise cutting, such as dovetails, mitres or tenon joints etc. Because of stiffened edge they can cut to limited depth. These have relatively more pitch and little or no set. b. Handsaws - Handsaws are available in many sizes and configurations, a good general purpose saw is 26" long and has 8 teeth per inch. Crosscut saws (to cut across the grain) have teeth with a negative rake, ripping saws (to cut in the direction of the grain) have a zero rake. The saws shown above are used if the job piece is held in the vice on a work bench, however, in India carpenters also work holding the job piece between their toes, and cut in the sitting posture. The cutting stroke is towards ones body as against away from body in case the piece is held in vice and the rake of the saws is reverse i.e. sloping tooth is towards the handle. c. Keyhole or Compass Saw - These saws have narrow blades to cut along curves or short distances. To start inside cuts one or more holes are drilled, depending on the shape of the cut-out. For longer inside straight cuts, the keyhole saw is used to make a cut long enough so that a regular handsaw can be inserted to finish the cut. d. Coping Saw - These saws use very narrow blades so intricate designs can be cut. The blade can be rotated a full 360° to negotiate tight corners. Inside cuts are started by drilling a small hole to allow the blade to pass through it, then the blade is inserted into the saw frame. Deep throated saws called scroll saws with frames having 18" clearance are available. e. Traditional Frame/Bow Saws - Frame saws are useful tools for a great many jobs—often called bow saws, the traditional shape has two hardwood handles separated by a wood bar, with the blade below the bar and a twisted wire or cable above. The result is a, H shape that makes handling very easy. The wire is turned and tightened to add tension to the blade, which then cuts straight and true. 3.0 Drills - The size of the drill is determined by the maximum drill bit shank that its chuck can accommodate.  - Used primarily for boring holes in nearly all materials, the electric drill can also be used for a variety of other tasks, facilitated by a number of accessories and attachments. These include sanding, screwdriving, grinding, and mixing paint to name but a few. 3.1 The Different types of drills a. Hand Drill - Uses a hand operated crank handle to turn an interlocking gear, which in turn rotates the drill bit. With a quicker set-up time than the electric drill, the hand drill is most useful when one requires only a small number of holes. Effective for drilling into wood, soft metal, and plastics, hand drills will generally accommodate most drill bits up to 6mm (1/4") in diameter in either keyed or keyless chucks, and can also be used for screwdriving. b. Miniature Hand Drill - Particularly useful for fine work, such as model making, the miniature hand drill bores holes with very small, high-speed steel bits. Useful for making pilotholes for small screws, some models have collets at both ends allowing the user to have different size drills available without having to change the bit. c. Brace - Similar to the hand drill, with the drill bit being rotated by manually cranking the handle whilst applying pressure. Effective for drilling into wood, the brace will generally accept larger drill shanks than the hand drill, and can also be used for screw driving. Some models have a ratchet fitted to the chuck, allowing the user to drill/drive in places where a full rotation of the handle is not possible. d. Electric Rotary Drill - The most basic of the electric drills, the rotary drill is used mainly for boring holes in a variety of materials. These can be either mains-operated (i.e. corded), or battery-operated (i.e. cordless). Different functions incorporated into some models include variable speed and reversing, and attachments can be used to enable different functions, such as sanding and grinding. e. Auger - An auger is a device for boring by removing material by means of a rotating in helical pattern. The shaved material is moved along the axis of rotation. f. Bradawl - It is used to bore small holes. This is operated with pressure from top by hand and drive it as screwdriver. This is mostly used to make pilot holes or clearance holes of small diameter, in thin members. 4.0 Plane - It is used to level and plane the wood surface. There are three distinct planes, namely, the jack plane, the beading plane and rebate plane, to work at all the surfaces required to be planed. 4.1 The Different Types of Planes a. Jack Plane - This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved because, as the bit must be driven out so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging into the planed surface. b. Beading Plane - This plane has an adjustable blade. It is used for smoothening or shaping the wood for the fine work. It cuts less material as compared to Jack Plane. c. Rebate Plane - This plane is used to cut wood along the grains. It is normally used to cut recess, shoulders and rebates. This plane is small in width. The blade of the plane slightly comes out of the body. d. Plough Plane - It is used to produce groves of different size. 5.0 Marking Tools  a. Try Square or Carpenter’ Square - Try squares or carpenter square are L-shaped, with a thin metal blade that is marked in graduations like a ruler and a “STOCK” called the body, which is thicker than the blade. For woodworking, the body is typically made of wood, while machinists use a variation that has a metal body. Try squares are used primarily to mark a straight line across a piece of wood for cutting. The thicker body of the square is placed against the edge of a piece of wood and the blade is placed on top of the wood, which ensures that the blade is then exactly perpendicular to the edge of the board. The thicker body of the try square also allows it to be placed flat on a table or tool with the blade sticking up in the air, making this a useful tool for measuring things, such as the height of a table saw blade or router bit etc. b. Marking Gauge - This is simply a straight bar, with a sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is used for marking straight lines parallel to one edge of piece and is very important in making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the edges of the mortises or tenons. 6.0 Miscellaneous Tools a. Screwdrivers - is used to dirve the screws. Only proper screw driver should be used i.e. ful consideration should be given to the type of head, drive and size of the screw. Improper screw driver not only will damage the screw head but also may cause injury to the workman. The screws should not be hammered to fit into the wood. The screwdriver is to be operated with both the hands so that it should not be slipped from screw. Carpenter's screwdriver has a broader handle compared to others to apply adequate pressure to the screwdriver. b. Pincer - This is used to remove small nails from wood. c. Plier - The plier is used to hold or remove the nails. III. BASIC WOOD JOINTS 1. Basic butt joints Basically basic butt joints are so simple because it requires no special tools or cutting techniques, making it ideal for beginners or for projects where the joint won't be exposed. Use in woodwork projects where strength is not primarily concerned. It's commonly used in framing structures, especially in house construction, like when framing walls. Weakness: Because there's no interlocking of the wood fibres, the strength of the joint is heavily reliant on the fasteners or adhesives used. Without reinforcement, a butt joint is prone to separating under stress. 2. Mitered butt joints similar to a basic butt joint but offers an aesthetic and structural advantage because the pieces of wood are joined at an angle, typically 45 degrees. Advantage over basic butt joints: Aesthetic:  The angled cut results in the wood surfaces meeting at an angle, making the joint appear seamless. Creates a clean, smooth corner, enhancing the overall appearance of the woodworking project. Makes the joint more visually appealing, especially in high-visibility projects such as picture frames, door trims, or decorative boxes. 3. Rabbet also known as a rebate Is a woodworking joint where a recess or notch is cut along the edge or end of a piece of wood. This notch fits snugly into a corresponding piece, creating a strong, secure joint that’s easy to assemble and offers increased glue surface area for better bonding. Stronger than basic butt joints because they allow the wood pieces to interlock, adding structural stability. The increased glue surface area enhances the strength of the joint. The rabbeted edge makes it easier to align and fit the pieces together, simplifying assembly. Rabbet joints are commonly used in cabinet construction, especially for attaching the back panel to the sides. They add significant strength to the assembly, ensuring the back doesn’t come loose over time. 4. Half-Lap Joint Is a woodworking technique where half of the thickness of two boards is removed at the point where they intersect, allowing them to fit together flush with one another. Maintains the overall thickness of the combined pieces while providing more contact surface area than a simple butt joint. Advantage: Stronger than a butt joint because of its interlocking design, which provides more surface area for glue and distributes forces more evenly across the joint. Balanced Load Distribution: Since both pieces share the load equally, the joint handles tensile and compressive forces better, which is ideal in framing or structures where strength is a priority. The half-lap joint ensures better alignment compared to butt joints, as the two pieces fit snugly together. Half-lap joints are frequently used in shelving or support structures, where joints are under significant stress. 5. Cross-Half-Lap Joint Variation of the half-lap joint, where two pieces of wood intersect at a 90-degree angle, each with half of its thickness removed at the crossing point. Advantage: Resistance to Side Forces:  The cross-halving joint has a large surface area for glue, making it highly resistant to side forces. Since the two intersecting pieces share the load, this joint can withstand both vertical and horizontal pressures better than other simple joints, making it ideal for structural applications. Cross-halving joint retains the original dimensions of the stock, which is important for projects that require precise sizing and alignment. This joint is commonly used in braces, such as in stretchers or cross-beams, where two pieces of wood need to cross each other to provide support. Cross-halving joints are widely used in trellis construction or in making grid patterns, such as for box compartment dividers. 6. Corner Bridle Joint - finger joint a variation of the halving-type joints, typically used in frame construction. It involves cutting an open mortise (a slot or cavity) into one piece of wood and a matching through tenon (a tongue or projection) on the other piece, which fits into the mortise. The tenon passes through the entire thickness of the mortised piece, creating a joint that is both strong and aesthetically versatile. 7. Dovetail Joint By incorporating a dovetail shape into the tenon, you further strengthen the joint, particularly in terms of resisting lateral forces. The dovetail flared, trapezoidal shape prevents the joint from pulling apart, adding a mechanical advantage to an already strong connection. Advantage: The dovetail shape, with its wider end, prevents the tenon from sliding out of the mortise, making the joint incredibly resistant to lateral forces. This is especially useful in projects where the joint may be exposed to stress from different directions, such as table legs, chairs, or structural frames. The dovetail inherently locks the two pieces of wood together, creating a joint that doesn't rely solely on glue or fasteners. In many cases, the dovetail enhancement eliminates the need for additional screws or dowels, as the shape of the joint itself prevents separation. Dovetail joints are known for their aesthetic appeal. Incorporating a dovetail into a bridle joint not only adds strength but also highlights the craftsmanship. Customization: The dovetail can be adjusted in size and shape to suit the project, offering flexibility in both function and design  The dovetail-bridle joint is particularly useful in projects like tables or chairs, where the joint needs to withstand significant lateral and vertical forces. 8. Box Joints a simpler and more practical alternative to the dovetail joint, particularly for those who may find dovetails too intricate or time-consuming. Box joints consist of interlocking "fingers" or rectangular pins and sockets that resemble the appearance of interlaced fingers, giving the joint its name. Box joints consist of interlocking "fingers" or rectangular pins and sockets that resemble the appearance of interlaced fingers, giving the joint its name. Because of the simplicity of the cuts, box joints are commonly used in mass production or in projects that require multiple joints, such as in drawer making or small boxes. 9. Dowel Joints A type of woodworking joint that serves as a simpler substitute for the more complex mortise and tenon joint. It uses cylindrical wooden pegs, called dowels, to align and strengthen two pieces of wood. The dowels act as round tenons, creating a hidden, strong connection between the two pieces. Unlike a traditional mortise and tenon joint, which requires precise cutting of a tenon and a matching mortise, a dowel joint only requires drilling corresponding holes in the two pieces of wood to be joined. Creating a dowel joint requires only basic tools like a drill and dowel pins, which makes it accessible for woodworkers at all levels, from beginners to professionals. The dowels act as round tenons, fitting tightly into the drilled holes and holding the two pieces together. When combined with glue, the dowel joint becomes strong and durable, capable of withstanding significant force. Dowel joints are especially useful in reinforcing butt joints, where the ends of two boards are joined. Without dowels, butt joints rely entirely on glue, which may not provide sufficient strength. Clean Appearance: Dowels are inserted into drilled holes and hidden from view, making the dowel joint an ideal choice for projects where visible joinery is not desired. Disadvantage: While dowel joints are strong, they are generally not as robust as traditional mortise and tenon joints, which offer more surface contact and a stronger mechanical connection. If the dowel holes are not drilled with precision, the joint can become misaligned or loose, compromising its strength.  Dowel joints may not be as durable in high-stress applications where the joint is subjected to significant forces over time, such as in large, heavy furniture or structural frames. In these cases, other stronger joints like mortise and tenon might be a better option.