Gross Anatomy PDF - Introduction to Human Anatomy

based on Snell’s Clinical Anatomy and Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy follows FEU-NRMF’s outline of topics transcribed by PARBS urinary system (urology) consist...

based on Snell’s Clinical Anatomy and Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy follows FEU-NRMF’s outline of topics transcribed by PARBS urinary system (urology) consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, which Anatomy filter blood and subsequently produce, transport, store, intermittently excrete urine. ¡ the science of the structure and function of the body. genital (reproductive) system (gynecology for females; andrology for males) consists of the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produce oocytes (eggs) and sperms, the ducts that APPROACHES TO STUDYING ANATOMY transport them, and the genitalia that enable their union. ¡ Basic Anatomy – study of minimal amount of anatomy consistent with the understanding endocrine system (endocrinology) consists of specialized structures that secrete of the overall structures and function of the body. hormones, including discrete ductless endocrine glands, isolated and clustered cells of the ¡ Regional Anatomy – considers the organization of the body as major parts or segments. gut and blood vessel walls, and specialized nerve endings. ¡ Surface Anatomy – under regional anatomy; provides knowledge on what lies under the skin & what structures are palpable to the touch in the living body when at rest & in action. ¡ Clinical Anatomy – study of the macroscopic structure and function of the body in Anatomical Position relation to the practice of medicine and other health services. ¡ Standing erect; upper limbs by the sides; the face, palms of the hands directed forward. ¡ Systemic Anatomy – study of the organ systems of the body that work together to carry out complex functions. integumentary system (dermatology) consists of the skin and its appendages— hairs, nails, and sweat glands, for example—and the subcutaneous tissue just beneath it. skeletal system (osteology) consists of bones and cartilage; provides our basic shape and support for the body; is what the muscular system acts on to produce movement; protects vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and pelvic organs. articular system (arthrology) consists of joints and their associated ligaments, connecting the bony parts of the skeletal system and providing the sites at which movements occur. muscular system (myology) consists of skeletal muscles that act (contract) to move or position parts of the body, or smooth and cardiac muscle that propels, expels, or controls the flow of fluids and contained substance. nervous system (neurology) consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system; controls and coordinates the functions of the organ systems, enabling the body’s responses to and activities within its environment. The sense organs (olfactory, visual, hearing, gustatory) are often considered with the nervous system. circulatory system (angiology) consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems, ANATOMICAL PLANES & ANATOMICAL TERMS RELATIVE TO POSITION which function in parallel to transport the body’s fluids. ¡ Median Plane / Median Sagittal Plane – a vertical plane passing through the center of ¡ cardiovascular system (cardiology) consists of the heart and blood vessels that propel the body, dividing it into equal left and right. and conduct blood through the body, delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to ¡ Paramedian Plane / Sagittal Plane – planes situated to one or the other side of the cells and removing their waste products. median plane and parallel to it, produces unequal left and right. ¡ lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels that withdraws excess tissue fluid ¡ Medial – structure situated nearer to the median plane (lymph) from the body’s interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters it through ¡ Lateral – structure that lies farther away from the median plane lymph nodes, and returns it to the bloodstream. Immune system ¡ Coronal/Frontal Plane – Imaginary vertical planes at right angles to the median plane, it alimentary or digestive system (gastroenterology) consists of the digestive tract from the divides the body into anterior and posterior portions. mouth to the anus, with all its associated organs and glands that function in ingestion, ¡ Anterior and Posterior – indicates the front and back of the body, respectively. mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing), digestion, and absorption of food and the To describe the relation of two structures, one is said to be anterior or posterior to elimination of the solid waste remaining after the nutrients have been absorbed. the other in so far as it is closer to the anterior or posterior surface of the body. respiratory system (pulmonology) consists of the air passages and lungs that supply oxygen to the blood for cellular respiration and eliminate carbon dioxide from it. The ¡ Horizontal Transverse Plane - Planes at right angles to both the median and the diaphragm and larynx control the flow of air through the system, which may also produce coronal planes, divides the body into superior and inferior portions tone in the larynx that is further modified by the tongue, teeth, and lips into speech. ¡ Superior and Inferior – denotes the levels relatively high or low with reference to the upper and lower ends of the body, respectively Page 1 of 5  Since the number of sagittal, frontal, and horizontal planes is unlimited, a reference point (usually a visible or palpable landmark or vertebral level) is necessary to identify the location or level of the plane e.g. transverse plane through the umbilicus. The main use of anatomical planes is to describe sections: ¡ Longitudinal Sections – lengthwise or parallel to the long axis of the body or any of its parts. The term applies regardless of the position of the body. ¡ Transverse / Cross Sections – Slices of the body or its parts that are cut at right angles (perpendicular) to the longitudinal axis of the body or any of its parts ¡ Oblique Sections – Slices of the body or any of its parts that are NOT cut along the previously listed anatomical planes. TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP AND COMPARISON ¡ Superior – refers to a structure that is located nearer the vertex (skull). ¡ Cranial – towards the head or cranium ¡ Inferior – refers to a structure that is located nearer to the sole of the foot. ¡ Caudal – towards the feet or tail region. e.g. in humans, this is represented by the coccyx—a small bone at the inferior (caudal) end of the vertebral column ¡ Posterior – back surface of the body or nearer to the back. ¡ Anterior – front surface of the body or nearer to the front. ¡ Rostral – describing parts of the brain (anteriorly) e.g. the frontal lobe of the brain is rostral to the cerebellum ¡ Palmar and Dorsal surfaces – used in place of anterior (palmar) and the posterior (dorsal) surfaces in describing the hand. ¡ Plantar and Dorsal surfaces – used in place of the lower (plantar) and upper (dorsal) surfaces in describing the foot ¡ Proximal & Distal – describe the relative distances from the roots of the limbs, nearer or farther away from the axial part of the body. ¡ Superficial & Deep – relative distance of the structure from surface of the body. ¡ Internal & External – relative distance of a structure from center of an organ or cavity. ¡ Supine & Prone position – whether lying on the back or lying face down, respectively. Page 2 of 5  TERMS OF LATERALITY ¡ Bilateral – paired structures having right and left members. e.g. kidneys ¡ Unilateral – a structure that is occurring in one side only. e.g. spleen ¡ Ipsilateral – structures on same side of the body. e.g. appendix and liver (right) ¡ Contralateral – structures on opposite side of the body. e.g. liver (right) and spleen (left) TERMS RELATIVE TO MOVEMENT ¡ Joint – site where to or more bones come together ¡ Synarthroses – immovable joints e.g. sutures of the skull ¡ Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints e.g. superior tibiofibular joint ¡ Diarthroses – freely movable joints e.g. shoulder joint ¡ Flexion – a movement that takes places in a sagittal plane, movement towards the body. ¡ Dorsiflexion – describes flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the front of the foot and toes off the ground. ¡ Plantarflexion – bends the foot & toes toward the ground (standing on your toes). ¡ Extension – straightening the joint and usually takes place in a posterior direction, movement away from the body. ¡ Lateral flexion – movement of the trunk in the coronal plane (bending to the side). ¡ Abduction – movement of a limb away from midline of the body in the coronal plane. ¡ Adduction – movement of a limb toward the midline of the body in the coronal plane. In the fingers and toes, abduction is applied to the spreading of these structures and adduction is applied to the drawing together of these structures. ¡ Circumduction – combination in sequence of the movements of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Rotation – movement of a part of the body around its axis. ¡ Medial rotation & Lateral rotation – movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing medially and laterally, respectively. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Pronation of the forearm – medial rotation of the forearm in such a manner that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly. ¡ Supination of the forearm – lateral rotation of the forearm from the pronated position so that the palm of the hand comes to face anteriorly. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Eversion – moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane, turning the sole laterally. When the foot is fully everted, it is also dorsiflexed. ¡ Inversion – moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially). ¡ Opposition is the movement by which the pad of the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit pad; used to pinch, button a shirt, and lift a teacup by the handle. ¡ Reposition describes the movement of the 1st digit from the position of opposition back to its anatomical position. Page 3 of 5 ¡ ¡ ¡ Protrusion & Retrusion – forward and backward movement used more commonly in describing the lips, tongue, and jaw at the temporomandibular joint. ¡ Protraction & Retraction – forward and backward movement used more commonly for anterolateral and posteromedial movements of the scapula on the thoracic wall, causing the shoulder region to move. ¡ Inversion & Eversion – movement of the foot so that the sole of the foot faces medial or the lateral direction, respectively. ¡ Elevation & Depression – movement where one raises or moves a part superiorly or lowers or moves a part inferiorly, respectively. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM BASIC STRUCTURES SKIN is divided into two parts: ¡ Epidermis – superficial part, stratified epithelium ¡ Dermis – deep part, dense connective tissues containing many lymphatic and blood vessels, and nerves FASCIAE - divided into 2 parts which lie between the skin, underlying muscles, & bones: ¡ Superficial fascia – or subcutaneous tissue, a mixture of loose areolar and adipose tissue that unites the dermis of the s kin to the underlying deep fascia ¡ Deep fascia – membranous layer of connective tissue that invests the muscle and other deep structures ¡ Retinacula – thickened portion of the deep fascia that forms restraining bands in the region of the joints. Holds the underlying tendons in position or to serve as pulleys around which the tendons may move BLOOD VESSELS ¡ Arteries – valve-less vessels that transports blood from the heart and distribute it to the various tissues of the body by means of their branches. ¡ Arterioles – smallest arteries ¡ Anastomoses – joining of the branches of the arteries ¡ Anatomic end arteries – vessels whose terminal branches do not anastomose ¡ Functional end arteries – vessels whose terminal branches anastomose ¡ Veins – vessels that transport blood back to the heart, many of them possess valves ¡ Venules – smallest veins ¡ Tributaries – smaller veins that unite to from larger veins, which commonly join with one other to from venous plexuses Page 4 of 5 ¡ Venae comitantes – pair of veins that accompanies medium-sized arteries, usually located on both sides ¡ Portal vein – veins from the gastrointestinal tract that do not go directly to heart but instead enters the liver and form capillary-like vessels called sinusoids ¡ Capillaries – microscopic vessels in the form of a network connecting the arterioles to the venules ¡ Arteriovenous anastomoses – direct connections that occur between the arteries and veins without the intervention of capillaries MEMBRANES Mucous Membrane ¡ Lining of the organs or passages that communicate with the surface of the body ¡ Consists essentially of a layer epithelium supported by a layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria ¡ Muscularis mucosa – present in the connective tissue of smooth muscles ¡ A mucus membrane may or may not secrete mucus on its surface Serous Membrane ¡ Lines the cavities of the trunk and are reflected onto mobile viscera lying within these cavities ¡ Consist of smooth layer of mesothelium supported by a thin layer of connective tissue ¡ Parietal layer – serous membrane limiting the wall of the cavity ¡ Visceral layer – covering of the viscera ¡ Serous exudate – small amount of serous liquid found on slit-like intervals: the pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities. It lubricates the surfaces of the membranes and allows the two layers to slide readily on each other ABDOMINAL REGIONS ¡ Nine regions of the abdominal cavity are used to describe the location of abdominal organs, pains, or pathologies. ¡ The regions are delineated by four planes: ¡ two sagittal (vertical) ¡ two transverse (horizontal) planes ¡ The two sagittal planes are usually the midclavicular planes that pass from the midpoint of the clavicles (approximately 9 cm from the midline) to the midinguinal points, midpoints of the lines joining the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and the pubic tubercles on each side. ¡ the transverse planes are the subcostal plane, passing through the inferior border of the 10th costal cartilage on each side, and the transtubercular plane, passing through the iliac tubercles (approximately 5 cm posterior to the ASIS on each side) and the body of the L5 vertebra. Page 5 of 5