Ghana Empire Part 2 PDF

Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire is an empire that existed in West Africa from the 3rd century. Ancient Ghana ruled from around 300 to 1100 CE. (CE is an abbreviation for Common Era. It means the same as AD (Anno Domini) and represents the time from year 1 and onward). The empire first formed when a n...

Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire is an empire that existed in West Africa from the 3rd century. Ancient Ghana ruled from around 300 to 1100 CE. (CE is an abbreviation for Common Era. It means the same as AD (Anno Domini) and represents the time from year 1 and onward). The empire first formed when a number of tribes of the Soninke peoples were united under their first king, Dinga Cisse. The government of the empire was a feudal government with local kings who paid tribute to the high king, but ruled their lands as they saw fit. The word \'\'Ghana\'\' means \'\'king of gold.\'\' For some others like the Soninke people, it means "warrior king". Other names of the Ghana Empire include Wagadou and Awkar. The Kingdom of Ghana ruled over a large part of Western Sudan (West Africa). Most information about the Ghana Empire was passed on through oral tradition, so not much authoritative information on the empire is extant. The closest thing to valid information available to researchers is the vibrant culture and tradition passed down from the Ghana Empire. One of the largest influences on the culture and economy of the kingdom of Ghana was Islam, which was a major religion in Africa at the time. This was especially true in the last two centuries of the kingdom, in which the capital of Ghana had over ten mosques. One of the most noteworthy facts on the Ghana Empire is that the Kingdom of Ghana is not the same as the country of Ghana known today. In fact, the two entities do not overlap each other at all. The Kingdom of Ghana was north of where the country is today and occupied the same geographical area as present-day Mauritiana and Mali. The main source of wealth for the Empire of Ghana was the mining of iron and gold. Iron was used to produce strong weapons and tools that made the empire strong. Gold was used to trade with other nations for needed resources like livestock, tools, and cloth. They established trade relations with the Muslims of Northern Africa and the Middle East. Long caravans of camels were used to transport goods across the Sahara Desert. Also, Ghana was said to possess sophisticated methods of administration and taxation, large armies, and a monopoly over notoriously well-concealed [gold mines](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gold/hd_gold.htm). +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Interesting Facts about the Empire of Ancient Ghana | | | | 1\. The Empire of Ancient Ghana is not related either geographically | | or culturally to the modern African country of Ghana. | | | | 2\. A lot of what we know about Ancient Ghana comes from the | | writings of Arab scholar called Abu 'Ubayd Al-Bakri. | | | | 3\. Iron smiths were much revered in the Ghana society. They were | | considered powerful magicians because they worked with fire and | | earth to create iron. | | | | 4\. Crossing the Sahara Desert from a coastal city to Ghana | | typically took around 40 days when travelling on a caravan of | | camels. | | | | 5\. Most of the people living in the empire were farmers. They | | didn\'t own the land. Rather, each family was allotted a portion of | | the land by the local village leader. | | | | 6\. Salt was considered very valuable and the salt trade was heavily | | taxed by the king. Much of the salt was mined in the Sahara Desert | | at the city of Taghaza where slaves were used to mine salt. Salt | | was sometimes used as money and was about as valuable as gold. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Fall of the Empire of Ghana\ \ Around 1050 CE, the Empire of Ghana began to come under pressure from the Muslims to the north to convert to Islam. The Kings of Ghana refused and soon came under constant attacks from Northern Africa. At the same time, a group of people called the Susu broke free of Ghana. Thus, the empire became weakened until it eventually fall and became part of the Mali Empire. In summary, therefore, after centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in the [second millennium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium), and would finally become a [vassal state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal) of the rising [Mali Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire) at some point in the 13th century. Despite its collapse, the empire\'s influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers throughout its former territory. In 1957, the [British colony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire) of the [Gold Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)), under the leadership of [Kwame Nkrumah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah) named itself [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana) upon independence in honor and remembrance of the historic [empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire), although their geographic boundaries never overlapped. Mali Empire The Mali Empire was a powerful West African empire that existed from the 13th to the 17th century. It was located in what is now Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, and parts of Niger and Burkina Faso. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita (also known as Lion King), a legendary warrior king, in 1230. It followed the Ghana as the next great West African empire. After Sundiata, the most famous ruler of the Mali Empire is Mansa Kankan Musa I, who came to power several decades after the death of his legendary predecessor. The Mali Empire is most known for prolific trade networks, development in education, wealth in gold and salt, and the establishment and spread of Islam in West Africa. Much of what is known about the Empire of Mali came from the famous traveler Ibn Battuta (1304-1377 CE), who spent time in Mali\'s royal court. The Mali Empire was also known for its vibrant culture and scholarship. The city of Timbuktu, which was located in the heart of the empire, became a major center of Islamic scholarship and learning, and was home to many Universities and Madrasas. Timbuktu was also known for its libraries, which contained thousands of manuscripts on a wide range of subjects, including science, mathematics, medicine, and literature. Under the leadership of Sundiata Keita and his successors, the Mali Empire became one of the wealthiest and most powerful empire in Africa. The empire was known for its abundant gold resources, which were used to finance the construction of impressive architecture, such as the famous Great Mosque of Djenné. The Mali Empire was also known for its thriving trade network, which stretched across the Sahara Desert and into North Africa and the Middle East. Traders would exchange gold, salt, ivory, and slaves for goods such as textiles, spices, and luxury items like silk and ceramics. Islam was introduced to the Mali Empire in the 11th century, but it wasn't until the 14th century that it became the dominant religion. Many of the empire's rulers, including Mansa Musa, were devout Muslims and helped to spread the religion throughout West Africa. Collapse of the Empire The Mali Empire collapsed in the 1460s following civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the neighbouring Songhai Empire, but it did continue to control a small part of the western empire into the 17th century. However, its legacy can still be seen today in the cultural traditions and architecture of West Africa. For example, the Mandinka language, which was spoken by the empire's ruling class, is still spoken by millions of people in West Africa today. The empire's art and architecture, including the famous Great Mosque of Djenné, continue to inspire artists and architects in the region. And the legacy of Mansa Musa and the empire's wealth can still be seen in the many gold artifacts and jewelry produced in West Africa today. Shongai Empire The Songhai Empire (c. 1375 -- 1591) was the largest and last of the three major pre-colonial empires to emerge in West Africa. From its capital at Gao on the Niger River, Songhai expanded in all directions until it stretched from the Atlantic Ocean (modern Senegal and Gambia) to what is now Northwest Nigeria and central Niger. Sonni Ali founded the Songhai Empire during his reign from 1464 to 1492 C.E. He was the most successful military leader of the Sonni dynasty - conquering the vital cities of Timbuktu and Jenne by 1473. The state of Songhai was incorporated under the Mali Empire in the 14th century but reasserted its independence as Mali weakened in the 15th century. Overland trade in [the Sahel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel) and riverine trade along the Niger were the primary sources of Songhai wealth. Trade along the West African coast was only possible in the late 1400s Several dikes were constructed during the reign of Sonni Ali, which enhanced the irrigation and agricultural yield of the empire. Fall of the Shongai Empire The fall of the Songhai Empire was the result of several factors, including invasion by Morocco (The wealth of its gold mines also drew the attention of invaders), internal power struggles (Coups and counter coups especially by the successors of Askia the great), economic decline, drought and famine (Environmental changes caused droughts and disease), and corruption and incompetence (Less skilled kings found the empire too large to control). These factors contributed to the weakening of the empire and made it vulnerable to attack from external forces. The Battle of Tondibi was the decisive confrontation in the 16th-century invasion of the Songhai Empire by the army of the Saadi dynasty in Morocco. Though vastly outnumbered, the Moroccan forces under Judar Pasha defeated the Songhai Askia Ishaq II, guaranteeing the empire\'s downfall. Zulu Kingdom The Zulu Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire, was a Southern African state in what is now [South Africa](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/South_Africa). The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the [Anglo-Zulu War](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Anglo-Zulu_War), in which the British was defeated in 1879. Consequently, the British annexed Zululand in 1887, although the office of king continued to be recognized but the colonialists still refer to it as Paramount Chief. The [Zulu](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Zulu) by this act, however, earned a reputation for their courage and skill as warriors even among the British, who tended to look down on Africans as inferior. Although the British downplayed their defeat, the spirit and example of the Zulu warriors lived on to inspire many in the anti-[Apartheid](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Apartheid) struggle in white-dominated South Africa, where the Zulu nation became a \"bantustan,\" or homeland. The Zulu people are the largest ethnic group and nation in South Africa, with an estimated 10--12 million people, living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. They originated from Nguni communities who took part in the Bantu migrations. The Zulus had originally trekked or migrated to Southern Africa as part of the wider [Bantu expansion](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Bantu_expansion) and their Kingdom can be considered as one of many Bantu Empires, kingdoms and political entities that included the civilization of Great Zimbabwe. The Zulu, especially those from rural areas, are known for their weaving, craft-making, pottery, and beadwork. From the 1810s until its destruction by the British, the Zulu kingdom was the largest in southeastern Africa, occupying most of what is today KwaZulu-Natal province, in South Africa. The Zulu kingdom was rather small and insignificant until King Shaka (ruled c. 1816--1828) conquered many neighboring polities. Shaka Zulu was the [illegitimate](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Illegitimate) son of Senzangakona, chief of the [Zulus](https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Zulu). He was born circa 1787. He and his mother, Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakona, and found refuge with the Mthethwa. Shaka fought as a warrior under Dingiswayo, leader of the Mtetwa Paramountcy. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka claim his place as chief of the Zulu Kingdom. Shaka was succeeded by Dingane, his half brother, who conspired with Mhlangana, another half-brother, to murder him. Before his assassination, warrior-king Shaka conquered all the groups in Zululand and united them into a single powerful Zulu nation that made its influence felt over southern and central Africa. Shaka ruled from 1816 to 1828, when he was assassinated by his brothers. Military innovations such as the assegai, the age-grade regimental system and encirclement tactics helped make the Zulu one of the most powerful clans in southern and south-eastern Africa. In its political system, Chieftainship and any position of power in the Zulu tribe are all based on genealogy. The eldest or favourite son becomes the heir to the throne or becomes chief. The head of the tribe acts as an arbitrator in any minor disputes. Also, the Zulu economy depended upon cattle and a considerable amount of agriculture. Villages were economically self-sufficient. While agriculture was the sphere of women, cattle were tended by the men. The kingdom fell to the British through superior fire power and internal strife that characterized the kingdom. Kanem-Bornu The Kanem-Bornu Empire was a large African state which existed from the 9th century through the end of the 19th century and which spanned a region which today includes the modern-day countries of Niger, Chad, Cameroon, and Nigeria. It came about with the coming together of Kanem and Bornu. The Kanem Empire The Kanem Empire (c. 700--1376) at its height encompassed an area covering Chad, parts of southern Libya (Fezzan) and eastern Niger, northeastern Nigeria, and northern Cameroon. The empire of Kanem began forming around CE 300 under the nomadic Tebu-speaking Kanembu. The Kanembu eventually abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and founded a capital around 700 CE under the first documented Kanembu king (mai), known as Sef of Saif. The capital of Njimi grew in power and influence under Sef's son, Dugu. This transition marked the beginning of the Duguwa dynasty. The mais of the Duguwa were regarded as divine kings and belonged to the ruling establishment known as the magumi. Despite changes in dynastic power, the magumi and the title of mai would persevere for over a thousand years. The major factor that later influenced the history of the state of Kanem was the early penetration of Islam that came with North African traders, Berbers, and Arabs. In 1085, a Muslim noble by the name of Hummay removed the last Duguwa king, Selma, from power and thus established the new dynasty of the Sefuwa. The introduction of the Sefuwa dynasty meant radical changes for the Kanem Empire. First, it meant the Islamization of the court and state policies. Second, the identification of founders had to be revised. Islam offered the Sayfawa rulers the advantage of new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as well as literacy in administration. But many people resisted the new religion, favoring traditional beliefs and practices. Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai Dunama Dabbalemi (ca. 1221--1259), also of the Sayfawa dynasty. Dabbalemi initiated diplomatic exchanges with sultans in North Africa and apparently arranged for the establishment of a special hostel in Cairo to facilitate pilgrimages to Mecca. During his reign, he declared jihad against the surrounding tribes and initiated an extended period of conquest. However, he also destroyed the national Mune cult and thus precipitated widespread revolt culminating in the uprise of the Tubu and the Bulala. The former was quenched, but the latter continued to linger on, leading finally to the retreat of the Sayfuwa from Kanem to Bornu c. 1380. The Bornu Empire By the end of the 14th century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. Between 1359 and 1383, seven mais reigned, but Bulala invaders (from the area around Lake Fitri to the east) killed five of them. This proliferation of mais resulted in numerous claimants to the throne and a series of destructive wars. Finally, around 1380, the Bulala forced Mai Umar Idrismi to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to Bornu on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Bornu peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri. But even in Bornu, the Sayfawa dynasty's troubles persisted. During the first three-quarters of the 15th century, for example, fifteen mais occupied the throne. Around 1460, Mai Ali Dunamami defeated his rivals and began the consolidation of Bornu. He built a fortified capital at Ngazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Niger), the first permanent home a Sayfawa mai had enjoyed in a century. The Sayfawa rejuvenation was so successful that by the early 16th century, Mai Idris Katakarmabe (1487--1509) was able to defeat the Bulala and retake Njimi, the former capital. The empire's leaders, however, remained at Ngazargamu because its lands were more agriculturally productive and better suited to the raising of cattle. The Kanem-Bornu Period With control over both capitals, the Sayfawa dynasty became more powerful than ever. The two states were merged, but political authority still rested in Bornu. Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the statesman Mai Idris Alwma (also spelled Alooma or Alawma; the last decades  of the 16th/the beginning of the 17th century). Alwma introduced a number of legal and administrative reforms based on his religious beliefs and Islamic law (sharia). He sponsored the construction of numerous mosques and made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a hostel to be used by pilgrims from his empire. Alwma's reformist goals led him to seek loyal and competent advisers and allies, and he frequently relied on slaves who had been educated in noble homes. He required major political figures to live at the court, and he reinforced political alliances through appropriate marriages. Kanem-Bornu under Alwma was strong and wealthy. Government revenue came from tribute (or booty, if the recalcitrant people had to be conquered), sales of slaves, and duties on and participation in trans-Saharan trade. Unlike West Africa, the Chadian region did not have gold. Still, it was central to one of the most convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases, and from Fezzan there were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products were sent north, including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides. However, the most significant export of all were slaves. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, muskets, and copper. Decline The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Alwma sustained the empire until the mid-17th century, when its power began to fade. By the late 18th century, Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of the Hausa. Around that time, Fulani people, invading from the west, were able to make major inroads into Bornu. By the early 19th century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign eventually affected Kanem-Bornu and inspired a trend toward Islamic orthodoxy. But Muhammad al-Kanem contested the Fulani advance. Kanem was a Muslim scholar and non-Sayfawa warlord who had put together an alliance of Shuwa Arabs, Kanembu, and other semi-nomadic peoples. He eventually built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria) in 1814. Sayfawa mais remained titular monarchs until 1846. In that year, the last mai, in league with Ouaddai tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It was at that point that Kanem's son, Umar, became king, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns in regional history. Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu survived. Umar could not match his father's vitality ,and gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers. Bornu began a further decline as a result of administrative disorganization, regional particularism, and attacks by the militant Ouaddai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar's sons. In 1893, Rabih az-Zubayr led an invading army from eastern Sudan and conquered Bornu. Following his expulsion shortly thereafter, the state was absorbed by the British-ruled entity that eventually became known as Nigeria. From that point on, a remnant of the old kingdom was (and still is) allowed to continue to exist in subjection to the various governments of the country as the Borno and Dikwa Emirates. Benin Kingdom The Kingdom of Benin, also known as the Edo Kingdom or the Benin Empire, was a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to the modern republic of [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin), which was known as [Dahomey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahomey) from the 17th century until 1975. The Kingdom of Benin\'s capital was Edo, now known as [Benin City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_City) in [Edo State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_State), [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria). The Benin Kingdom was \"one of the oldest and most developed states in the coastal hinterland of [West Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa)\". It grew out of the previous [Edo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_people) Kingdom of [Igodomigodo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igodomigodo) around the 11th century AD, and lasted until it was annexed by the [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire) in 1897. The original people and founders of the Benin Kingdom, the [Edo people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_people), were initially ruled by the [Ogiso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Ogiso) (Kings of the Sky) who called their land [Igodomigodo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igodomigodo). Benin ruled over the tribes of the [Niger Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_Delta) including the Western [Igbo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people), [Ijaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijaw_people), [Itshekiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsekiri_people), [Ika](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ika_people), [Isoko](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoko_people) and [Urhobo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urhobo_people) amongst others. It also held sway over the Eastern [Yoruba tribes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_people) of Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu. At its height in the 16th century, Benin dominated trade along the entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos reaching almost [Accra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accra) in the West. Benin\'s power declined from the late 16th century as it lost control over territories in the west. The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas and Iyobas (king's mother) of Benin. These plaques also included other human and animal figures as well as items like ceremonial belts. Ivory was also used, as seen in the carving of ivory into ornate boxes, combs and armlets. The most well-known artifact is based on [Queen Idia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Idia), now known as the [Benin ivory mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_ivory_mask). Ivory masks were meant to be worn around the waist of kings. Benin\'s economy was previously thriving in the early to mid 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, and the continuation of the trade in textiles, ivory and other resources. To preserve the kingdom\'s independence, the Oba gradually banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil. Decline of Benin Benin temporarily declined after 1700 following a civil war, then partially recovered later in that century, only to decline once again in the late 19th century. This is because the early 18th century saw a revival where Oba Ewuakpe restored the authority of the oba position and the fortunes of the kingdom. His son, Oba Akenzua benefited from trade with Europeans and was to be one of the richest obas in the kingdom\'s history. By the latter half of the 19th century, Britain preferred a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; as British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom\'s palm oil, kola nut, ivory and potentially rubber resources. Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with the official visit of [Richard Francis Burton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton) in 1862 when he was consul at [Fernando Pó](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_P%C3%B3_%28island%29). Following that were attempts to establish a treaty between Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress was, however, made in 1892 during the visit of Vice-Consul [Henry Gallwey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Galway). Benin eventually fell to the British in 1897 following a massacre / conflict that occurred between a British delegation and the Benin people. A British delegation led by James Robert Phillips departed from the Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1897 with the stated aim of negotiating with the Oba of Benin. Perceiving this to be an attempt to depose the Oba, the Oba\'s generals unilaterally ordered an attack on the delegation as it was approaching Benin City. A [punitive expedition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897) was launched in response, and a 1,200-men strong force, under the command of [Sir Harry Rawson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Rawson), captured Benin City. They deliberately sought out and destroyed certain areas of the city, including those thought to belong to the chiefs responsible for the ambush of the British delegation, and in the process a fire burnt the palace and surrounding quarters, which the British claimed was accidental. The British occupied Benin, which was absorbed into the [British Niger Coast Protectorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate) and eventually, into British [colonial Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria). A general emancipation of slaves followed in the wake of British occupation but Britain also imposed a system of forced labour in Benin and in surrounding areas as they did throughout other parts of southern Nigeria. The British launched an additional operation in 1899, called the \"Benin Territories Expedition\", against rebels still holding out against the British. The British burnt down numerous towns, and destroyed farms in an attempt to starve the rebels into submission. After the 1899 expedition, military resistance in the former Kingdom of Benin against the British occupation ceased