Germany notes.pdf

1 GERMANY IN TRANSITION 1919-1939 KEY QUESTION 1: IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR What challenges were faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919- 1923? Weaknesses of the Weimar Government: By November 1918 Germany was losing the First World War. The German government asked for pe...

1 GERMANY IN TRANSITION 1919-1939 KEY QUESTION 1: IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR What challenges were faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919- 1923? Weaknesses of the Weimar Government: By November 1918 Germany was losing the First World War. The German government asked for peace but the Allies (Britain, France and USA) refused to make peace with the Kaiser (emperor) because he did not believe in democracy. So Kaiser Wilhelm II agreed to abdicate (give up his throne) and fled to Holland. Germany was now a republic under a new democratic government – the Weimar Government, led by Chancellor Ebert. The new government signed the armistice which ended the war and wrote a new constitution (laws) which said how the country would be governed: 1. All adult Germans could vote in elections for the Reichstag (Parliament). 2. The voting system chosen for the elections was called proportional representation. This meant that each political party gained a number of seats in the Reichstag in proportion to its total vote eg. a party with 5% of the votes would get 5% of the seats in the Reichstag. This led to coalition governments (2 or more parties working together). They spent their time arguing, which meant nothing got done. 3. The political party (or parties) with a majority in the Reichstag formed the government and the head of the government was called the Chancellor. 4. The head of state was the President. He was elected by the people every seven years. 5. The President had a lot of power. In an emergency he could pass laws without the agreement of the Reichstag. This was called ‘rule by decree’ (Article 48). C. Lane 1 2 6. This was the first time that Germany had been a democracy. It was hated by some Germans who saw democracy as weak and preferred total rule by the Kaiser. 7. The Weimar government made a deal with the army that they would support and supply the army in return for the army supporting the government. This made the Weimar government dependent on the army. Impact of the Treaty of Versailles: The Allies met at Versailles (Paris) where they drew up a treaty to end the war. They blamed Germany for starting the war and agreed to punish her. 1. Germany lost huge areas of land to France, Belgium, Denmark and Poland. 2. The Rhineland (the area next to France) was to be demilitarised and occupied by the Allies. 3. The Saar (Germany’s coal fields) was to be governed by the League of Nations. 4. West Prussia was given to Poland, creating the ‘Polish Corridor’ through Germany. 5. Danzig was made a free city. 6. No union with Austria. 7. The German army was reduced to 100,000 men. The navy was reduced to six battleships and Germany was not allowed to have an air force. 8. Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war (War Guilt Clause - Article 231) and pay reparations of £6.6 billion (compensation for the damage caused by the war) to France and Belgium. 9. Germany was not allowed to be a member of the League of Nations. C. Lane 2 3 The German government thought the treaty was unfair but the politicians were forced to sign it because the Allies threatened to invade Germany. The German people saw the treaty as completely unfair, and blamed the Weimar government for accepting it. Some of them blamed the politicians who had signed the armistice. They called them the ‘November criminals’. Others accused the government of stabbing the army in the back. They claimed that the German army would have won the war if the armistice had not been signed. This was not true but many Germans believed the ‘stab in the back’ theory. Political Instability: 1. The Spartacist Uprising 6th January 1919 (left-wing) The Spartacist League were a group of communists who tried to start a revolution. In December 1918 the Spartacists’ demonstrations against the government caused violent clashes with the army, leading to 16 Spartacists being killed. On 6th January 1919 the Spartacists attempted to overthrow the Weimar Government. They were defeated by the Freikorps. These were ex-soldiers. The Spartacist leaders, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, were killed. 2. The Bavarian Uprising 1919 (left-wing) In April 1919, another group of communists overthrew the government of Bavaria, the second largest state in Germany. Once again, the Weimar government used the Freikorps to end the revolt. 3. The Kapp Putsch March 1920 (right-wing) In March 1920 the Weimar Government announced they would reduce the size of the army and disband the Freikorps. The leader of the Belin Freikorps, Ehrhardt refused to comply and a plan was drawn up with the politician, Dr Kapp, for a putsch (revolt). Around 400 Freikorps, led by General Luttwitz, seized Berlin on 13th March 1920 with the plan to make Kapp Chancellor. The army refused to fight the ex-soldiers so a general strike of the workers brought the uprising to an end. Violence continued in Germany for the next two years and around 376 murders were carried out. Two leading Weimar government ministers C. Lane 3 4 were assassinated – Erzberger, leader of the Centre Party and Rathenau, the Foreign Minister. 4. The Munich Putsch November 1923 In 1919 Hitler joined the German Workers Party. Within two years he had become the leader of the party and on his suggestion its name was changed to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party). A specially designed flag – the swastika – helped attract attention and membership grew. In 1921, he set up the SA (Sturm Abteilung) or storm-troopers. They dressed in brown uniforms with a swastika armband and became known as the Brownshirts. They were involved in lots of street fights with other political parties and they broke up their political meetings. On 8th November 1923 Hitler thought that the time was right for the Nazis to seize power. He decided that as the Nazi Party had grown in support in Bavaria, he would seize power here and then march on Berlin. Hitler used 600 storm-troopers to attack Munich, the capital of Bavaria. They seized control of the Beer Hall where the Bavarian government leader, police chief and army chief were having a meeting and held them at gunpoint so they promised to support Hitler. However, the three leaders were allowed to leave the building and organised the police and army to resist Hitler. The Munich Putsch failed. The police killed 16 Nazis and Hitler was arrested, along with his main supporter, General Ludendorff. The results of the Putsch were: 1. Hitler was tried for treason in February 1924 and sentenced to five years imprisonment. (He was released after just nine months.) 2. Hitler’s trial gave the Nazi Party publicity throughout the country. 3. Whilst in the Landsberg prison Hitler had time to think about the future and organise his ideas. He wrote these down in his book ‘Mein Kampf’ (‘My Struggle’). 4. Hitler had tried to seize power by force but had failed. He decided that in future the Nazis would try to win power legally. They would win votes rather than use violence. C. Lane 4 5 Events in the Ruhr 1923: In January 1923 Germany stopped paying reparations as she could not afford anymore. Therefore, the French and Belgians decided to take what the Germans owed them by sending troops into the Ruhr (the most industrialised part of Germany) and forcing the Germans to work for them. The Weimar government told the workers to use passive resistance. This meant they went on strike and it looked like the government had done nothing. However some strikers sabotaged pumps in mines so they flooded and set factories on fire – a number were shot by French troops. Germans viewed the strikers in the Ruhr as heroes and the government printed more money to pay the workers. Hyperinflation: In 1923 the government printed too much paper money. This meant that money became worthless, and prices shot up. This is known as hyperinflation. Workers had to be paid twice a day and they brought wheelbarrows and suitcases so that they could carry their wages home. People with savings or a fixes income found themselves penniless. KEY QUESTION 2: RECOVERY OF WEIMAR Why were the Stresemann years considered a ‘golden age’? Recovery from hyperinflation: Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923. He ended hyperinflation by ending the strike in the Ruhr, introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark, and loaning money from abroad. The Rentenmark was issued in limited amounts and based on property value, not gold reserves. Gradually it restored confidence in Germany and a year later was replaced by the Reichsmark which was backed by gold. As a result there seemed to be prosperity (rich) in Germany as public works led to new stadiums, flats and opera houses; big business paid off debt and there was industrial growth; worker’s wages increased and hours remained stable; and unemployment fell from 9 million to 6 million. But some farmers were affected by a worldwide depression in agriculture and needed to modernise in order to remain competitive. But lack of profit caused debt and they did not invest in new machinery. By 1929 C. Lane 5 6 agricultural production was at 74% of its pre-war level, whereas industry had fully recovered. Wages for industrial workers were also not much above the cost of living. Lower middle class (skilled craftsmen, commerce, and small businesses) did not fully recover from hyperinflation. Dawes and Young Plans: The Dawes Plan was agreed in August 1924. It agreed: 1) Reparations would be paid in instalments of 1 billion marks for the first year and increase over a four year period to 2.5 billion marks a year. 2) Allied troops would leave the Ruhr in 1925. 3) The USA would loan 800 million marks to Germany. Over the following six years, American banks and businesses loaned $3000 million to Germany. The Young Plan of 1929: 1) Reduced reparations from £6.6 billion to £1850 million. 2) Extended the payment period to 59 years. The Locarno Pact: This was an agreement signed in 1925 between Germany, Britain, France, Belgium and Italy to keep the existing borders between Germany, Belgium and France. It led to better relations described as the ‘Locarno Honeymoon’. Relations with the League of Nations: Germany was allowed to enter the League of Nations in September 1926, restoring Germany’s Great Power status. This helped to bring about the Young Plan. In 1928 Germany and 64 nations signed the Kellogg Briand Pact which agreed to solve disputes by ‘peaceful means’. Social and Political developments: Between 1924-29 Germany was politically stable with greater support for the Weimar Republic. This was due to Stresemann and President Hindenburg, a war hero who had been elected in 1925. This period has often been called the ‘Golden Age’ as: C. Lane 6 7 1) Standards of living improved: a) Real wages increased by 10% and unemployment fell. However, the middle class did not benefit from the rise in wages and unemployment was still high among lawyers, civil servants and teachers. b) Two million new homes were built due to government investment, tax breaks, land grants and low interest rates. c) The Unemployment Insurance Law 1927 provided unemployment benefit (money). 2) Women’s lives improved: a) In 1919 women over 20 could vote. b) Equality in education. c) Equal pay in professional jobs. d) There was an increase in women working as teachers, lawyers and doctors. e) More freedom e.g. drank, smoked, wore make-up. 3) Cultural changes: a) Art showed everyday life (Neue Sachlichkeit) ‘New objectivity’ e.g. Otto Dix. b) Architecture grew. c) Cinema grew e.g. Fritz Lang’s ‘Metropolis’. d) Literature from right and left wing politics was encouraged e.g. Remarque’s ‘All Quiet on the Western Front’. KEY QUESTION 3: END OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC How and why did the Weimar Republic collapse between 1929 and 1933? Social and Political impact of the Great Depression on the Weimar Republic: In October 1929, America went into the Great Depression due to the Wall Street Crash. America demanded that Germany pay back the money they had borrowed, which meant Germany also went into depression. Companies went bankrupt, people became homeless and unemployment increased to 6 million by 1933. The German people blamed the Weimar Government and it was made worse by Stresemann’s death. The Weimar C. Lane 7 8 Government could not agree on how to tackle unemployment and from March 1930 Chancellor Bruning relied on Article 48 to get laws passed. The reasons for the growing support for the Nazis: As a result of the Great Depression, more people supported the Nazi ideas which Hitler had set out in ‘Mein Kampf’:  Germany needed a strong leader (dictator) like himself.  He would cancel the Treaty of Versailles.  They would make Germany a great military power by increasing the size of the army.  He would end the Depression so Germany would be prosperous again.  Aryan people (blond, blue-eyed Germans) were the master race (superior to others). Hitler hated the Jews (anti-Semitic) and blamed them for most of Germany’s problems. German people, he argued, had to be ‘purified’ of all Jewish blood.  Germans should work together to make Germany great again in ‘the people’s community’ Individual rights, like the right to think differently from others, were less important than loyalty to the country, the people and the leader.  Hitler hated communism and wanted to destroy it. Several factors led to increased support for the Nazi Party: 1. The Depression The Weimar government appeared to be unable to solve the depression while the Communists and Nazis put forward simple solutions. The Communists wanted to overthrow the Weimar government and set up a communist society where the wealth was shared fairly between the people. The Nazis promised to make Germany prosperous and strong C. Lane 8 9 again under the strong leadership of Adolf Hitler. As unemployment rose so did support for these extremist parties. 2. Nazi appeal Hitler had come across the German Workers Party while working for the government as a spy. He decided to join and eventually became the leader. In 1920 he announced its programme in the 25 points of National Socialism. In it he tried to win the support of all Germans by having a programme that would appeal to everybody. The Nazis appealed to the German people at two levels:  They appealed to the whole of the country by promising to get rid of the Treaty of Versailles and make Germany powerful again. They also promised to end the Depression and make Germany prosperous again. The Nazis were offering work and hope. They accused the Jews of being responsible for all of Germany’s problems and provided the Germans with scapegoats.  The Nazis appealed to different sections of the country. They promised the working classes jobs, decent wages and good working conditions. They promised the middle classes that they would destroy communism. The farmers were promised good prices for their produce. Women, who made up half of the voters, were promised support for family values. 3. Propaganda The Nazis held rallies and marches, made speeches and used the radio, posters, books and newspapers to put across their message. However, some of their methods were different from those of other political parties. They used mass rallies as great stage-managed occasions to impress the desperate people of Germany. Hitler flew across Germany to speak at rallies in every major city 4. The Role of the SA: The Nazi Party used the SA to disrupt the political meetings of the other parties and to intimidate their political opponents with street fights. Hitler appointed Ernst Rohm as leader and there were 170, 000 members C. Lane 9 10 by 1932. Their violence was mainly aimed at the Communists and the Socialists. Many unemployed young people, who admired the discipline and aggression of the SA, were attracted to the Party. 5. Financial backing The Nazis needed money to finance their election campaigns so tried to get the support of wealthy businessmen. By promising to destroy trade unions and keep wages down, they won the support of rich industrialists like the steel baron, Fritz Thyssen and Krupp who paid huge sums of money to the Nazis. Another wealthy supporter was Alfred Hugenberg who owned 500 newspapers and cinemas throughout Germany. In 1929, he decided to help the Nazis by giving them massive publicity in his newspapers and cinemas. 6. Hitler Hitler was a great political speaker who could inspire people with enthusiasm. During the election campaigns he was shown as the strong leader that Germany needed. Nazi propaganda showed him as a superman who could restore Germany’s fortunes. His personal popularity was shown in 1932 when he stood against Hindenburg in the presidential elections and gained 13 million votes against Hindenburg’s 19 million. 7. The weaknesses of the Weimar government The government tried to deal with the depression by increasing taxes, cutting wages and reducing unemployment benefit. The Socialists did not approve of these measures and left the coalition. This meant that the government no longer had a majority in the Reichstag, and the three Chancellors who ruled Germany between 1930 and 1932 had to rely on President Hindenburg using the presidential decree to get their laws passed. Despite this, unemployment continued to rise and the government appeared to be making a mess of solving the problem. Political extremism and scheming 1929-1932: When the Depression hit Germany in 1929, the government was a coalition of four political parties. They had no solution to the problem of rising unemployment. In the election of 1930 the four coalition parties lost seats in the Reichstag as the voters turned to the extremist parties: C. Lane 10 11 1. Many working class people voted for the Communists who promised to restore Germany’s wealth and share it out fairly. 2. The middle classes voted for the Nazi Party due to Hitler’s ideas. Bruning’s Government The coalition government continued to govern Germany because the four coalition parties still had a majority of the seats in the Reichstag. But in March 1930, the largest party in the coalition, the Socialists, left the government. Without the Socialists, Chancellor Bruning could not get his laws passed by the Reichstag. He asked President Hindenburg to ‘rule by decree’. It meant that the President could pass Bruning’s laws without the agreement of the Reichstag. Bruning called an election in September 1930 to try to gain a majority in the Reichstag. The Nazis won 107 seats in the Reichstag in the 1930 elections. They were now the second largest party. Only the Socialists had more seats (143). Bruning resigned in May 1932 because he had failed to stop unemployment rising. Von Papen’s Government President Hindenburg chose Von Papen as the next Chancellor and there was another election in July 1932, to try and get him a majority. But he failed to win more votes and the Nazis won 230 seats and became the largest party in the Reichstag. Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor, but President Hindenburg did not trust him so continued to support Von Papen. Elections were held again in November 1932 to try and gain more support for Von Papen. This failed and Von Papen was replaced as Chancellor by General Von Schleicher. The Nazis had won 34 fewer seats in the November election but were still the largest party in the Reichstag. Von Schleicher’s Government Von Schleicher lasted only 57 days as Chancellor. Like Von Papen he could not get laws passed in the Reichstag and Hindenburg had to rule by decree. President Hindenburg realised that he would have to give the Nazis a chance. After all, they were the largest party in the Reichstag. The Nazis did not have a majority in the Reichstag and Von Papen persuaded Hindenburg that Hitler would need the support of the other C. Lane 11 12 parties to stay in power. Von Papen and Hindenburg thought that they could control Hitler. As a result, Hitler became Chancellor on 30th January 1933. C. Lane 12 13 KEY QUESTION 4: CONSOLIDATION OF POWER 1933-34 How did the Nazis consolidate their power between 1933 and 1934? Hitler as Chancellor: When Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933, he was one of just three Nazis in the government. The other eight members of the government belonged to other parties. Von Papen, who was vice-Chancellor, was sure that he could control Hitler. But Hitler had other ideas. He was determined to end democracy and make himself dictator of Germany. To do this, however, he needed a large majority in the Reichstag. The Reichstag Fire, 27th February 1933: After he became Chancellor, Hitler arranged for another election to be held on 5th March 1933, hoping to get a majority of the seats in the Reichstag. He could then change the constitution and make himself dictator of Germany. During the election campaign Hitler, in his position as Chancellor, made it difficult for his opponents to run a proper campaign. For instance, in Prussia, the largest German state, the police were encouraged to break up the political meetings of the Socialists and Communists. On 27th February 1933, the Reichstag building burned down in Berlin. Marianus Van de Lubbe, a young Dutch communist, was caught with matches and firelighters inside the building. At his trial he confessed to the crime. The court couldn’t find any connection between him and the German Communists who had been arrested after the fire. Many people believed that the Nazis planned the fire as they used it to frighten many Germans into believing that the communists were about to take over. Hitler persuaded President Hindenburg to pass an emergency decree – The Law for the Protection of the People and the State. This gave Hitler the power to arrest anyone suspected of plotting against the government. The Nazis began arresting Socialists and Communists. Hitler, however, still didn’t win enough seats in the election to get a majority. He solved the problem by making a deal with the Centre Party (Catholic). He promised not to interfere with the Catholic Church in C. Lane 13 14 Germany, if the Catholic politicians would vote for his laws. Also, all Communist MPs were banned from taking their seats in the Reichstag. The Enabling Act, 23rd March 1933: When the new Reichstag met in the Kroll Opera House, Hitler presented his Enabling Act. This gave the Chancellor the power to make laws, for four years, without the Reichstag voting on them. The Enabling Act was passed by 444 votes to 94. The SA and SS had surrounded the building so only the Socialists were brave enough to risk voting against it. Trade Unions and political parties: Hitler quickly used his new powers to destroy any opposition: 1. In April 1933, he put Nazi officials in charge of all the German states (Lander). 2. In May 1933, he abolished trade unions and made strikes illegal. Trade union leaders were imprisoned. 3. Other political parties were banned and their leaders imprisoned. Then in July 1933 a Law against the Formation of New Parties was made. This said the Nazi party was the only political party allowed to exist: anyone trying to set up or run another party would be imprisoned. Germany had become a one-party state. 4. In October 1933 a Reich Press Law brought in strict control of the press. The Night of the Long Knives 30th June 1934: Hitler wanted to become President as well as Chancellor when Hindenburg died, but he needed the support of the rich businessmen and the army to do this. But the army was very suspicious of the SA and its leader, Ernst Roehm. Roehm wanted the SA to take over the army. The businessmen were also suspicious of the SA because wanted to improve conditions for the working classes. In order to get the army and the businessmen on his side, Hitler turned on the SA and on 30th June 1934, he had all the leading officers of the SA arrested and executed without any trial. Over 400 people were killed in what became known as the Night of the Long C. Lane 14 15 Knives (also known as Operation Hummingbird or Blood Purge). The executions were carried out by the SS. Hitler becomes Fuhrer August 1934: One month later, President Hindenburg died. Hitler combined the posts of Chancellor and President and gave himself the title Fuhrer which simply means leader in German. On the same day all officers and men of the army swore an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler. The Weimar Republic was finished and the Third Reich had begun. KEY QUESTION 5: NAZI ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND RACIAL POLICY How did Nazi economic, social and racial policy affect life in Germany? Reducing unemployment: 1. Reduce unemployment which had risen to 6 million by 1933. 2. Rearmament – to build up weapons and increase the size of the German army, navy and air force. 3. Autarky – to make Germany self-sufficient so that they would not have to rely on imports. When Hitler came to power he appointed Hjalmar Schacht to control the economy. Schacht’s New Plan:  Reduced unemployment by creating jobs in factories.  Made trade treaties with Eastern European countries (e.g. Hungary). They supplied Germany with raw materials in exchange for manufactured goods. This meant German industry was able to recover from the Depression. Although the New Plan was successful Hitler wanted to rearm much faster so Herman Goering replaced Schacht in 1936. Goering introduced the Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within four years: C. Lane 15 16  Massive orders were given to German industry for guns, tanks and planes.  Autarky aimed to make Germany self-sufficient in materials needed for war such as oil, rubber and steel. German scientists were encouraged to find synthetic (ersatz) substitutes e.g. synthetic rubber and synthetic oil were made from coal. But Germany was not made completely self-sufficient by the time war broke out. In his election campaigns Hitler had promised ‘bread and work’ for the German people. In 1933 there were six million Germans unemployed. By 1939 this figure had come down to 300,000. 1. The Reich Labour Service (RAD) created jobs through government Public Works Schemes. They built motorways (autobahns), hospitals, schools and improved agriculture. Huge public buildings like the Olympic stadium for the 1936 Berlin Games were built. In July 1935 it became compulsory for all men aged 18-25 to do six months training in the RAD. 2. Rearmament also created jobs in factories. 3. More men were recruited into the army. When Hitler came to power in 1933 the army was limited to 100,000 men by the Treaty of Versailles. By 1938 the figure had risen to 900,000 men. 4. Women, Jews and unmarried men under 25 were no longer counted in official unemployment figures and part-time workers were counted as full time. Nazi policy towards workers: The German Labour Front (DAF) In 1933 the Nazis banned trade unions because trade unionists tended to support the Socialist and Communist Parties, the enemies of the Nazis. Instead, they set up the German Labour Front. This Nazi organisation controlled workers’ rights and conditions like wages and hours. Wages were kept low and working hours longer. Strikes were illegal. Workers C. Lane 16 17 were given work books which recorded the record of employment – employment depended on owing a work book. Membership of the DAF required a fee of 3-15 marks depending on their work. The German Labour Front set up two organisations to improve the lives of the workers: 1. The Beauty of Labour (SDA) tried to improve working conditions by improving safety standards, reducing noise levels in factories and introducing hot midday meals. 2. The Strength through Joy (KDF) provided workers with leisure activities when they were not working. These included film shows, concerts and trips. Those who worked hardest could be rewarded with a cruise on a ‘Strength through Joy’ ship. About 10 million Germans went on KdF holidays. They also developed the Volkswagen, the people’s car. Workers were encouraged to start saving for one, paying 5 marks a week. But not one worker got a car and no money was given back. These organisations aimed to convince the workers of the need to work harder and longer for less money. They were told that they were helping to build a great and powerful Germany. Controlling education: Hitler realised that any opposition to the Third Reich would come from older people, who were set in their ideas. With children it would be different. They could be indoctrinated from babyhood with Nazi ideas, and grow up to be good Nazis who would never question Hitler’s policies. Bernard Rust, a teacher who had been sacked in 1930 for ‘instability of mind’ was put in charge of education. He aimed to ‘Nazify’ the teachers. Any teachers known to be anti-Nazi were sacked, and the rest were sent on courses, and to camps, to be ‘trained’ in Nazi ideas. All teachers had to belong to the Nazi Teachers League. School timetables were changed so that young people were taught Nazi ideas. All lessons started and ended with ‘Heil Hitler’ salute. C. Lane 17 18 Children were taught that the German (Aryan) race was superior to any other; that Hitler was a great leader who should never to be questioned; and that Jews were evil. The school timetable included new subjects that Hitler considered important e.g. Race Studies. Other subjects such as Maths, History, Geography and Science were to be taught either in a ‘military’ way or to show how superior the Aryan race was. Physical education was increased so that boys would be fitter to be better soldiers and girls to be better mothers. History books were rewritten to show how dreadful the Jews were and how unfair the Treaty of Versailles was. Special schools for boys called Napolas aimed to train the future Nazi leaders. They were run by ex-members of the SS. Athletics and courage were more important than academic ability. There is no doubt that most children became good Nazis, but educational standards did go down because teachers and parents were afraid to question what children were taught. The role of the Hitler Youth Movement: The Nazis also believed it was important to control young people’s minds in their spare time. Children and young people were expected to join the youth movements which aimed to prepare boys for war and girls for motherhood. Boys joined the Hitler Youth at the age of 14. They wore uniforms, learned to shoot guns and read maps, went to camp and on long marches. In 1939 membership was made compulsory. There were 8 million members. The League of German Maidens was the girls’ version of the Hitler Youth. It also organised camping and hiking, but to make girls fit enough to be strong mothers. They were taught about health matters. Women were told not to smoke, wear trousers or put on makeup so they could be ‘good’ mothers. Youth gangs Some young people rebelled against the Nazis. Youth gangs, such as the Edelweiss Pirates beat up Hitler Youth members. Swing Kids listened to C. Lane 18 19 American jazz, and grew their hair long. But these groups were small in number. The Nazis treated them harshly, even hanging them during the Second World War. Women and the Three Ks: The Nazis believed a woman’s duty was to have children and support her husband. A woman’s place was in the home, having children and caring for her family. Women should not wear make-up, did not smoke and wore flat shoes and full skirt. The Nazi slogan ‘Kinde, Kirche, Kuche’ (Children, church and kitchen) tried to persuade women to change:  Women who had professional job like doctors, civil servants and teachers were sacked. From 1936 women were not allowed to be judges or lawyers, or even to sit on juries because it was felt that they were too emotional to make.  Women were not allowed to take part in politics. Although the Nazi Party had female organisations, women never had any real political power. They were banned from positions of leadership in the Party.  The Nazis wanted to increase the birth rate so promoted motherhood and large families. In 1933 ‘The Law for the Encouragement of Marriage’ gave marriage loans to women who gave up work in order to get married. These loans did not have to be repaid if the woman had at least four children. Women were also awarded medals for having children. The gold ‘Honour Cross of the German Mother’ was given to those who had eight. Contraception and abortion were made illegal. To improve women’s fertility they were encouraged to stop smoking, stop slimming and to do sport.  Nazi policies were only aimed at healthy Aryan women. So Jews could not get marriage loans. Women with hereditary diseases were sterilised.  In 1936 Maternity Homes were set up to carry out Lebensborn (Life Springs). Unmarried women were encouraged to ‘donate a baby’ by becoming pregnant by racially pure SS soldiers. C. Lane 19 20 How successful were Nazi policies aimed at women?  By the late 1930s there was a shortage of labour in Germany. Women were needed in the factories. By 1939 there were more women in jobs than there had been in 1933.  The birth rate rose in the period 1933-39.  Although the Nazis said that they were encouraging traditional family life, children were now so busy and active, they spent little time with their family. Also, mothers found it more difficult to discipline young boys who were taught to believe that women were to serve men. Attitudes to Religion: When Hitler came to power in 1933 the Churches were willing to give him their support despite the violence associated with Nazism. There were three reasons for this: 1. The Nazis said that they supported the family and old fashioned values. 2. The Nazis were opposed to communism. The Churches feared the communists because they wanted to destroy Christianity. 3. Hitler set out to gain the support of the Churches. The Roman Catholic Church In 1933 Hitler signed the Concordat with the Pope. This agreement said that the Catholic Church would be left alone by the Nazis as long as the Church stayed out of politics. But Hitler had no intention of keeping his promises to the Pope. After using the support of the Centre (Catholic) Party to get the Enabling Act through the Reichstag, Hitler began to arrest Catholic priests who were suspected of being anti-Nazi. Catholic schools were brought under the control of the Nazis so that Catholic children could be indoctrinated with Nazi propaganda. Catholic youth organisations were banned because many parents preferred to send their children to the Catholic Youth rather than the Hitler Youth. In 1937 the C. Lane 20 21 Pope attacked the Nazi system in a famous statement (encyclical) called ‘With Burning Anxiety’. But the Nazi persecution of priests continued and many were put in concentration camps because of their criticism of the Nazi government. In 1941 a Catholic priest, Cardinal Galen, revealed that the Nazis were secretly carrying out euthanasia (killing mentally and physically handicapped people). His statement was read in Catholic Churches throughout Germany and he led a campaign which made Hitler stop euthanasia. The Protestant Churches 1. German Christian Church Protestants who supported Hitler joined together in one church called the German Christian Church or National Reich Church. It was led by Muller. He was given the title of Reich Bishop. They used Nazi-style uniforms, salutes and marches. Mein Kampf replaced the bible. 2. Confessional Church Protestants who opposed Hitler and formed an alternative ‘Confessional Church’. Many of the ministers of the Confessional Church were sent to concentration camps. One of these was Martin Niemoller, who criticised the Nazis and set up the ‘Pastor’s Emergency League’ for priest who opposed Hitler. While in prison he was visited by the prison chaplain who asked him, ‘But brother! Why are you in prison?’ Niemoller replied, ‘And brother, why are you not in prison?’ Protestant Church schools and youth clubs suffered the same fate as those of the Catholic Church. The German Faith Movement The Nazis tried to start a new religious movement of their own. It was based on adulation of Hitler as a new god. It rejected Christian values and included many pagan ideas. It did not receive much support from the mass of the German people. C. Lane 21 22 The Nazis never destroyed the Churches in Germany. They made it difficult for Christians to worship but the Churches remained open and services were held. Hitler did, however, succeed in his aim of weakening the Churches as a source of resistance to his policies. The treatment of Jews 1933-1939: Anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews) was an important Nazi belief. As soon as Hitler came to power in 1933 the persecution of the Jews started: 1) In April 1933 a boycott of Jewish shops and businesses. SA brownshirts stood outside Jewish shops to stop people from entering. 2) In April 1933 they banned all Jews from working for the civil service (government) apart from Jews who had fought, or who had a relative killed, in the First World War (because Hindenburg insisted). 3) When Hindenburg died in August 1934, Jews were banned from public parks, swimming pools, cinemas, theatres and restaurants. 4) In September 1935 Hitler announced the Nuremberg Laws. There were two of these laws: a) The Reich Citizenship Act said Jews could not vote or be elected to government. They were not citizens of Germany. b) The Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour. Jews were defined as anyone with a Jewish grandparent, and not allowed to marry or have sexual relations with German citizens. The second of these two laws showed an important difference between the Nazis’ anti-Semitism, and how Jews had been persecuted before. The Nazis said that Jewishness was in the blood, whereas in the past Jews had been persecuted because of their religion. This meant Jews could not escape persecution. In the past they had been able to save themselves by becoming Christians. 5) In the 1936 Olympic Games the Nazis hid all signs of persecution against Jews. 6) In 1937, on secret orders from Heydrich, Jewish women who had had sexual relations with German citizens were sent to concentration camps. C. Lane 22 23 7) In March 1938 Jews had to register possessions. 8) In July 1938 Jews had to carry ID cards. 9) In August 1938 Jewish parents had to add the name ‘Sara’ to their daughter’s name and ‘Israel’ to their son’s. All Jewish doctors and other professional people could only do business with other Jews. 10) In November 1938 the persecution reached its height. A German embassy official was murdered in Paris by a young Jew. The Nazis organised a massive nationwide attack (pogrom) on Jewish shops, homes and synagogues. About 100 Jews died in SA attacks, over 7500 Jewish shops were destroyed and 400 synagogues were burnt down. This event became known as Crystal Night (Kristallnacht – Night of the Broken Glass) because of all the broken glass on the German streets. Over 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. The Nazis claimed it was an outburst of anger by ordinary people, but really it was organised by Goebbels. The persecution continued after Crystal Night. Goering confiscated all Jewish businesses, selling them cheaply to German businessmen. Jewish children were banned from German schools and universities. Jews were encouraged to emigrate, but without any of their possessions. KEY QUESTION 6: TERROR AND PERSUASION What methods did the Nazis use to control Germany? Use of the SS and Gestapo: Hitler wanted to turn Germany into a totalitarian state where a single leader or party has total power. Germany became a police state. This means that the police had the power to arrest and punish people who disagreed with the Nazis. Although Hitler was now Fuhrer, he had to make sure that the German people continued to obey him and the Nazi Party. He did this through terror and set up organisations to enforce it: Gauleiter In January 1934 Hitler abolished all the individual states in Germany and brought them under central control. The country was divided into regions known as Gau, controlled by a Reich governor known as Gauleiter. These were loyal Nazi party officials who were appointed by Hitler. They were C. Lane 23 24 given the power to appoint and dismiss the town mayor and all local councillors. This gave Hitler control over what went on at local level. The SS The SS (Schutzstaffel) was set up in 1925 as an elite section of the SA who were loyal to Hitler. They wore Blackshirts. In 1929, Heinrich Himmler took control of the SS. After the Night of the Long Knives the SS became the main security force. In 1936 it was given control of the ordinary police and the Gestapo. By 1939 there were three parts to the SS: 1. State security – they had to search out and deal with enemies of the Nazi Party. 2. Waffen SS – provided the best soldiers in the armed forces. 3. ‘Death’s Head’ units – controlled the concentration camps and later the death camps. The Gestapo This was set up in 1933 by Hermann Goering as a secret state police. The job of the Gestapo was to track down opponents of the Nazis and send them to concentration camps. In 1936, the Gestapo came under the control of the SS and it was run by Reynhard Heydrich, who was one of the most ruthless Nazis. The SD This was set up in 1931 as the intelligence (spies) part of the Nazi Party, led by Himmler. Every town in Germany was divided into small units called blocks which included only a handful of homes. The local Nazi – the Block Warden or Blockleiter – checked on the people in the block. The Block Wardens were the eyes and the ears of the party. They reported anything suspicious to their party superiors, who in turn told the police. Failure to give the Nazi salute, or the telling of anti-Hitler jokes were enough to get a person reported to the police. The SD members included lawyers, economists and professors. C. Lane 24 25 Control of the Legal system: Since the SS and the Gestapo could put people in concentration camps without a trial the courts were unable to protect Germans from them. However, had the opponents of the Nazis been given a trial the outcome would have been the same. The judges were all Nazi supporters and had to belong to the Nazi League for the Maintenance of Law and Order. In 1934 Hitler set up the People’s Court to try people for crimes against the state. By 1939 it had sentenced over 500 to death and sent many more to concentration camps. Crimes punishable by death included offences such as listening to a foreign radio station. Concentration Camps At first these contained political opponents such as Communists, Socialists and Trade Unionists. The first was in Dachau. Later, other groups were sent to camps. Prisoners were classified into different categories, shown by a coloured badge. Gypsies, tramps and beggars and homosexuals were some of the groups rounded up by the Nazis and sent to camps. The mentally ill were considered a threat to the purity of the Aryan race so they sterilised them. Once the war had begun it was decided that the mentally ill were a drain on resources so 30,000 were murdered. Goebbels and Propaganda: Governments use propaganda to persuade people to think and behave in a certain way. The Nazis used propaganda to convince the German people that their policies were right for Germany. The Nazis also used censorship. They tried to prevent people hearing, reading or seeing anything that was critical of the Nazis. Propaganda and censorship were vital to the Nazis because they helped to make sure that most Germans supported Nazi ideas. Both were controlled by the Minister of People’s Enlightenment and Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels. C. Lane 25 26 Use of rallies, radio and cinema:  Rallies were held all over the country to show how popular Hitler and the Nazis were and to persuade people that Nazi Germany was powerful and great.  An annual rally of the Nazi Party was held each year in Nuremburg. Music, lighting and banners were used as a backdrop for Hitler’s speeches.  The 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin were used as a propaganda opportunity to show the superiority of the Third Reich. German athletes won more medals than any other country.  Poster campaigns were a way of giving ideas and images an important place in people’s minds. Images of Hitler as a wise leader appeared in many poster campaigns. Radio  Radio was relatively new and Goebbels realised how useful it could be to Nazi propaganda. Industry was encouraged to produce cheap radios that everyone could afford and by 1939 Germany had more radios per head of population than any other country in the world.  All radio programmes were carefully controlled and Hitler’s speeches were frequently broadcast. The radios on sale in Germany were designed to have a short range. This meant that they could not pick up foreign stations and listen to alternative versions of the news.  Radio sets were placed in cafes and factories and loudspeakers placed in the streets. Cinema  The cinema was very popular in Germany and over 100 films were made each year.  All film plots had to be shown to Goebbels before production started. C. Lane 26 27  Before each film an official newsreel was shown, glorifying Nazi achievements.  Although some propaganda films were made, Goebbels believed that propaganda succeeded best if people were entertained. The German cinema, therefore continued to make comedies, love stories, thrillers and historical epics, which were all given a pro-Nazi slant. Censorship of newspapers and the arts:  Non-Nazi newspapers and magazines were closed down or taken over.  News was biased in favour of the Nazis and editors were told what they could print. As a result, newspaper sales went down because people found them repetitive and boring.  Many writers, composers and artists were persuaded or forced to create works in praise of Hitler and the Third Reich.  Books written by Jews, Communists and anti-Nazis were banned (over 2500 writers). Many were destroyed in public book-burnings in 1933.  Jazz music was banned because it was the music of black people (an inferior race).  Much modern art was declared ‘degenerate’ and art galleries were forced to get rid of it.  Cheap theatre tickets encouraged people to attend plays which had Nazi ideas. C. Lane 27 28 KEY QUESTION 7: HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY What factors led to the outbreak of war in 1939? Hitler’s foreign policy aims: a) To reverse the Treaty of Versailles by regaining land lost and building up the German armed forces. b) Unite all German speaking people to create a ‘Greater Germany’ (Grossdeutschland) e.g. Germans in Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. c) Lebensraum (living space) by expanding into Poland and East Russia. d) Anschluss (union) with Austria. e) Destroy Communism as he believed the communists helped to defeat Germany in WW1 and that Stalin (leader of USSR) wanted to take over Germany. When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 the Depression meant that countries were focused on solving their own problems. The League of Nations (an international organisation to prevent war) was seen as weak due to the way it dealt with Japan after she invaded Manchuria (part of China). Italy was also seen as more of a threat than Germany by Britain and France, so Hitler knew that if he challenged the Treaty of Versailles he would be unlikely to be opposed. In 1932 representatives from 60 countries met at the World Disarmament Conference. Germany wanted all countries to disarm to the lowest level (i.e. the same as Germany) but France refused. Hitler left the conference in 1933 and announced that the German army would increase to 300, 000, there would be a new Air Ministry to train pilots and 1000 new aircraft would be built. Although this violated the Treaty of Versailles, nothing was done. In October 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations. In January 1934 Hitler announced a Non-aggression Pact with Poland promising to accept the borders of Poland (even though she had some German territory) and encourage trade. This created a split between France (who also had a treaty with Poland) and Britain who saw this as a sign of Hitler’s peaceful intentions. When he became Chancellor in 1933, Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazi Party to push for union with Germany in order to achieve his aim of C. Lane 28 29 Anschluss. In July 1934 they attacked the radio station in Vienna and assassinated the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss. It looked like Hitler was about to take Austria, but Mussolini (Italian leader) sent 100, 000 troops to the border of Austria as a warning and Hitler was forced to back down and deny any involvement. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the Saarland, an area of Germany that had been under League of Nations control, held a plebiscite on the 13th January 1935. This was a vote by the public who decided by a huge margin to re-join Germany. On 1st March 1935 the Saar was officially part of Germany again, demonstrating support for Hitler’s ideas and encouraging him to follow his aims. Rearmament and conscription: In March 1935 Hitler announced conscription and the German army, navy and airforce were built up openly. Hitler said this was because France and the USSR were building up their forces. In response, in April 1935 Britain, France and Italy met at Stresa, a town in Italy. They agreed to maintain the Treaty of Versailles and to co- operate among themselves to enforce it. This agreement was known as the Stresa Front. However, the Stresa Front was broken by two events: 1) The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of June 1935 which allowed Germany to build a navy up to 35% the size of Britain’s and the same number of submarines. This seemed like Britain was condoning German rearmament. 2) The Italian invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935 which broke the rules of the League of Nations, leading Britain and France to criticise Italy and Mussolini deciding to leave the League of Nations. The Rhineland 1936: Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles the Rhineland was demilitarised (no German troops) and occupied by Allied troops for at least 15 years. Allied troops withdrew from the Rhineland in 1935. On 7th March 1936 Hitler re-occupied the Rhineland, gambling that Britain and France would take no action. German commanders carried sealed C. Lane 29 30 orders to retreat if opposed. Hitler’s gamble worked and convinced Hitler that Britain and France would be unlikely to intervene against further action. Results: 1) Increased Hitler’s popularity e.g. 99% of Germans voted to support the re-occupation. 2) Britain and France were unable to deal with Italy as they feared Mussolini would move closer to Hitler. 3) Hitler was encouraged to challenge the Treaty of Versailles further. To strengthen his position Hitler made two alliances: 1) The Rome-Berlin Axis in October 1936 in which Italy and Germany agreed to work together on matters of interest to both, follow a common foreign policy and stop the spread of communism. Mussolini and Hitler exchanged state visits in 1937 and 1938. 2) The Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1936 in which Germany and Japan agreed to work together to stop the spread of communism. Italy joined in November 1937. The Anschluss 1938: On 5th November 1937 Hitler met with his military chiefs in Berlin. Hitler spoke about his foreign policy aims for three hours. The minutes were written up five days later from the notes and memory of Colonel Hossbach, later known as the Hossbach Memorandum. This meeting indicated war was Hitler’s plan. Hitler’s position was stronger in 1938: 1) Rearmament, the weakness of the League of Nations and success in the Rhineland encouraged him. 2) Italy was now an ally. 3) Union with Austria was justified as 96% were German-speaking. 4) The new Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg had appointed Nazis into his government in return for Hitler’s promise he would leave Austria alone (see below). In 1937 Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazi Party to stage demonstrations demanding union with Germany and bombing public buildings. He invited Schuschnigg to Germany in February 1938 to discuss the chaos and bullied him into including Nazis in his government. On 8 th March Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite for the Austrian people to vote on their future. Hitler threatened invasion, forcing Schuschnigg to C. Lane 30 31 resign on 12th March to be replaced by Seyss-Inquart, leader of the Austrian Nazi Party who asked Hitler to send troops to Austria to ‘restore order’. On 13th March Hitler proclaimed Anschluss, holding a fixed vote in April 1938 whereby 99.75% of Austrians voted in favour of Anschluss. Results: 1) Italy did not protest and Britain and France took no action, even though they protested. British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain felt the Treaty of Versailles had been wrong to separate Austria and Germany. 2) The British public believed that Austrians were pleased with the union. 3) Britain and France followed a policy of appeasement towards Germany which meant giving in to reasonable demands. This seemed sensible as many felt the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh, no one wanted another war and the British and French militaries were not strong enough to fight. 4) Hitler was encouraged that Britain and France would not intervene. The Sudetenland 1938: The Sudetenland became part of Czechoslovakia due to the Treaty of Versailles, but contained three million German speaking people. Hitler wanted the Sudetenland as: 1) A strong Czechoslovakia would make war more difficult as he may have to fight on two fronts. 2) He feared a Soviet invasion of Germany through Czechoslovakia. 3) He wanted the wealth and resources of the land. In April 1938 Hitler told Henlein, leader of the Sudetenland Nazi Party, to cause unrest and German newspapers printed stories of poor treatment of Germans in Sudetenland. Hitler said he would support Sudeten Germans with force. If the Sudetenland was given to Germany, Czechoslovakia would be defenceless as most of her industry, armaments factories and fortifications were located there. Since she had an alliance with France, Czechoslovakia expected support. In September 1938 it looked like the Sudetenland Crisis could lead to war so Neville Chamberlain, British PM, met with Hitler. He believed he could persuade him to compromise. The first meeting was held on 15th September 1938 with Hitler demanding the Sudetenland or he would go to C. Lane 31 32 war. Chamberlain got the Czechs to agree. However, at a second meeting on 22nd September 1938 Hitler asked for Czech land to be given to Poland and Hungary too. Britain and France rejected this and it looked like there would be war. Chamberlain asked Mussolini to persuade Hitler to attend a meeting. Hitler agreed and the leaders of Britain, France (Daladier), Italy and Germany met at Munich in September 1938. Czechoslovakia and the USSR were not invited. This was known as the Munich Conference. They agreed that the Sudetenland would be given to Germany and guaranteed Czechoslovakia’s new borders. This was known as the Munich Agreement. The day after Chamberlain and Hitler met alone and agreed the Anglo- German Declaration which promised never to go to war with each other and to settle disputes by talks. Chamberlain believe he had negotiated ‘peace for our time’ and returned to Britain as a hero. Results: 1) Czechoslovakia was now indefensible and had been deserted by her allies. 2) Britain had sacrificed a friend (Czechoslovakia) to avoid war. 3) France had failed to stick to her alliance with Czechoslovakia. 4) Hitler turned his attention to the rest of Czechoslovakia, confident that Britain and France would take no action. 5) Stalin was furious that he had not been invited to Munich and concerned that Britain and France would do nothing if Hitler attempted to attack Poland or the USSR. 6) Italy and Germany grew closer. In March 1939, Hitler put pressure on the new Czech leader, Hacha, and threatened invasion. German troops were invited in to Czechoslovakia to restore ‘order’. The Czech territory of Bohemia and Moravia became German and Slovakia was given independence but controlled by Germany. Hitler claimed he had not broken any agreements by seizing control of Czechoslovakia as he had been invited in. Results: 1) Hitler showed he could not be trusted as he had broken the Munich Agreement. 2) He was no longer claiming legitimate German territory. 3) Britain stepped up rearmament. By March 1939 Britain was concerned that Hitler was threatening Poland as he said he wanted the return of Danzig (a city under League of Nations control) and the Polish Corridor (a piece of German land given to Poland C. Lane 32 33 under the Treaty of Versailles which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany). On 30th March 1939 Britain issued the Polish Guarantee to safeguard Poland’s borders. Hitler’s plan for invasion of Poland (Operation White) was set for 1st September 1939. In May 1939 Hitler and Mussolini formed the Pact of Steel where they agreed to assist each other in war and plan operations together. It also promised close economic co-operation. Britain and France began negotiating with Stalin about allying with the USSR. However, Chamberlain was suspicious of Stalin and was slow to respond to negotiations, giving the impression that Britain was not serious about an alliance. The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939: In August 1939 negotiations between Britain and the USSR broke down and the USSR began talks with Germany. Ribbentrop, the German Foreign Minister, met Molotov, the Soviet Foreign Minister in Moscow and the Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed (Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact). They agreed: 1) Not support any third country if it attacked the other. 2) To consult with each other and not join alliances against each other. 3) To invade and divide Poland (this was a secret term). 4) To allow the USSR to occupy Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. This meant that Germany would not have to fight a war on two fronts and it removed the possibility of Britain, France and the USSR allying against Germany. On 1st September 1939 German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France decided to stick to their promise to protect Poland and gave Hitler an ultimatum to remove German troops. Hitler did not reply and on 3 rd September 1939 Britain and France declared war on Germany. C. Lane 33