Geography of India (PDF)

POWERED English Medium MPPSC MAINS GS PAPER-1 PART-B UNIT-1 GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF INDIA @safaltaias www.safaltaias.com By:-Dr. Kuldeep Sir ...

POWERED English Medium MPPSC MAINS GS PAPER-1 PART-B UNIT-1 GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF INDIA @safaltaias www.safaltaias.com By:-Dr. Kuldeep Sir  Powered by  Ancient Indian geographical concepts have a long history, which has been continuously flourishing and growing in different periods.  Inter-regional travels, literary descriptions, remains obtained from excavations of civilizations are present as the sources of ancient geographical knowledge. Sources of geographical knowledge Sources of Vedic Ramayana Buddhist Mythological Historical Harappan period and period sources journeys civilization sources Mahabharata sources period sources 1. Sources of Harappan Civilization -  Contemporary geographical details were obtained from the excavations of cities such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal. Like -  All the cities were situated on the banks of rivers. Which shows the importance of rivers in the development process.  Knowledge of natural disasters is evident from the construction of granaries. 2. Vedic period sources  Geographical information is obtained from Vedic period literature such as Vedas, Brahmans, Aranyakas, Upanishads. Like -  Information about the origin of the universe is found in the 10th Mandal of Rigveda.  Information about agricultural activities is found in Shatapath Brahman. 3. Ramayana and Mahabharata period sources  This period is also full of geographical information. Like -  Information about mountains, rivers and plateaus is found from Ramayana. Pilgrimages of Mahabharata are also rich in geographical knowledge. 4. Sources of Buddha period -  The religious journeys and literature of this period provide geographical information. Like -  Pilgrimages of Buddha and Mahavira  Pali literature 5. Sources of Purana period -  In Vishnu Purana, India is described as follows – Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 1 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Uttar Yat Samudrastha Himadreshcheva Dakshinam. Varsham Tad Bharatam Naam Bharati Yatra Santatih.  That is, the country which is to the north of the sea and south of Himalayas is called India. 6. Historical journeys -  Greek geographers (Hecataeus, Herodotus) and Chinese travellers provided geographical information in their travel descriptions.  Like - "Fahian" described the equable climate of Malwa as the best climate in the world. Region wise geographical knowledge Physical Economic Cultural Astronomical knowledge 1. Physical -  Information about physical geography is obtained from literary sources, remains obtained from excavations.  For example - Mountains -  In Mahabharata, Satpura is described as 'Vadarya Parvat'.  Himalaya Mountain is described in Rigveda. Rivers -  In 'Nadi Sukta' of 10th Mandal of Rigveda, 21 rivers are described.  In Markandeya Purana also 'Sapta Saindhav' rivers are described. Seasons -  In ancient Indian texts, 6 seasons are described.  For example - Varsha, Grishma, Sharad, Hemant, Shishir, Basant.  The discovery of commercial coins describes the mutual cultural contact of civilizations.  For example - coins of Egyptian and Harappa civilization. Astronomical Knowledge -  The Rigveda and Ayurveda provide us the knowledge about constellations, solar eclipse, lunar eclipse and Earth's rotation. Major Indian Geographic Thinkers 1. Brahmagupta -  Works - Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Khandakhandya  Gave details of the Earth's attraction force (gravity).  Solutions to geometrical and algebraic problems are given in Khandakhandya.  Astronomy is described in Brahmasphuta Siddhanta. 2. Kalidasa -  Works - Meghdootam, Ritusanharam  Meghdootam contains description of clouds and the beauty of Amarkantak. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 2 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Ritusanharam describes the seasons in India. 3. Varahamihir -  Works - Panchsiddhantika, Wrihatsanhita  He has given detailed description of solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. ऽ Panchsiddhantika describes the gravitational force of the earth. 4. Aryabhatta -  Works - Surya Siddhanta, Aryabhattiyam  He told that the earth is round and rotates on its own axis. 5. Bhaskaracharya-II  Works - Siddhanta Shiromani, Karan Kautoohal  He told about the motion of planets.  He divided the earth into 3600 parts and used latitude and longitude lines for position determination. India: Physiographic Regions  It is the result of the geological structure, process and state of development of a place.  According to the Census Commission of 1951, 11% of the total area is mountainous, 18% hilly, 28% plateau and 43% plain.  On the basis of strata, rock sequence, tectonic history, processes and relief patterns, India can be divided into 5 major physical regions. Types Mountaino Vast plain of Peninsular Coastal Islands us region of North India plateau plain North Northern Mountainous Region  It forms the northern boundary of the Indian subcontinent.  Location - From Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east  Length - 2500 km.  Climate - Temperate climate  Formation - According to plate tectonics, the Himalayas originated due to the collision of the Eurasian plate and the Indian plate and folding of the Tethys Sea situated between the two.  The Northern Mountainous Region can be divided into three parts 1. Trans Himalayan Mountainous Region 2. Himalayan Mountainous Region Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 3 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 3. Hills of Purvanchal Origin of Himalayas according to Kober's Geosyncline theory  According to Kober, folded mountains like Himalayas are formed in geosynclines (shallow seas)  According to Kober, hard fronts (phreatogen), Brownian Cratogen and Indian Phreatogen were present on both sides of the Tethyl Geosyncline.  Due to erosion of these fronts, rivers started depositing sediments in the geosyncline, due to which the bottom of the geosyncline started sinking and the fronts started sliding towards each other, due to which the geosyncline continuously narrowed and started applying horizontal pressure on the sediments at its bottom.  Due to this horizontal pressure, folding started in the sediments and a folded mountain in the form of Himalayas originated.  Stages of division Division of Pangea Division of Gondwanaland Himalayas originated on the basis of plate tectonics theory  When about 250 million years ago in the Permian period of Paleozoic era, all the continents were connected as a single supercontinent Pangea and all the oceans were connected as Panthalassa. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 4 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Division of Pangea  Division of Pangea took place 200 million years ago in the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era, in two huge parts, Laurentia (including North America, Europe, Asia, Greenland, etc.) and Gondwanaland (including Africa, South America, India, Australia, Antarctica, etc.) and the displacement of Laurentia towards north and Gondwanaland towards south started.  The sea formed between both the landmasses was named as Tethys Sea. Division of Gondwanaland  About 145 million years ago in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, Gondwanaland got divided again and after separating from it, the displacement of the Indian plate towards north started, which led to the formation of a new ocean, the Indian Ocean. Collisions of plates  60 million years ago, in the Paleocene era of Tertiary era, the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate due to which the crustal rocks and sediments of Tethys Sea were uplifted along the Indus-Tsangpo junction region. Presently, the Indus River and the Yarlang Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) flow along this junction region. Origins of fold mountains  In the Eocene period of Tertiary Era (45-35 million years ago), folding of the rocks of Tibet Plateau, volcanic eruptions led to the formation of Trans Himalayas and folding of the sediments of Tethys Sea, which led to the rise of Greater Himalayas, Middle Himalayas and Shivalik ranges in Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene respectively.  After this, the Indian plate rotated counterclockwise and closed towards the east, due to which wide valleys were formed towards the west. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 5 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  The mountain ranges of the Himalayas are separated from each other by a fault line. Fault Line Boundary Indus-Sangpo Junction Zone Tibet and Indian plate Main Central Thrust Large and small regions Main Boundary Fault Lesser Himalayas and Shivalik Himalayan Frontal Fault Shivalik and northern plain Trans Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya Range  Location  It is situated to the north of the Great Himalayas.  Average height is 3000 m.  It includes the Karakoram, Ladakh, Jaskar and Kailash mountain ranges.  Formation  Trans Himalayas were formed in the Mesozoic period before the Himalayas, i.e. Trans Himalayas is an older mountain range than the Himalayas.  Other name - Tibet China Himalaya  Length - 1000 km.  India's northernmost pass Dhingla Pass is situated in it.  Ranges  Trans Himalayas have three ranges. a. Karakoram Range b. Ladakh Range Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 6 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by c. Jaskar Range a- Karakoram  Situated in the northern part of the Trans-Himalayan mountain range.  It is also known as Krishnagiri.  Other name - Backbone of High Asia.  Location  Karakoram is surrounded by the edge of the Tibetan plateau in the northeast and the Pamir Mountains in the north.  The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed from west to east by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate it from the last edge of the northwestern Himalayan range and flow in the southwest direction towards the plains of Pakistan.  It forms the border with China and Afghanistan.  Geographical conditions  Due to high altitude, the Trans Himalaya remains snow-covered throughout the year, that’s why vegetation is not found here.  Extreme odd temperatures and debris of disintegrated rocks are its characteristics.  Highest peak  K2 (Godwin Austin) (8611 m) situated on Karakoram (Krishnagiri) is the highest peak of India and the second highest peak of the world.  Other major peaks  Hidden peak, Broad peak, Gaserbrum, Maserbrum etc. are other major peaks of this mountain range.  Steppe like or desert landscape is an important feature of the Karakoram mountain range.  Karakoram range acts as a watershed between India and Turkey.  Glaciers  Barring the polar regions, here the most number of glaciers in the world.  Outside the polar regions, Siachen Glacier 70 km and Biafo Glacier 63 km are the second and third longest glaciers in the world.  Glaciers like Batura, Baltoro, Biafo and Hispar are also located in this mountain range.  Glacial Surges-  Recently, the phenomenon of ‘glacial surge’ was observed in more than 220 glaciers of the Karakoram range.  Glacial surge is a short-term phenomenon in which an increase in the length and volume of the glacier is observed. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Passes Pass Description Mintaka Pass  Between northern Pakistan and China  It is situated at the tri-junction of India-Afghanistan and China. Parpik Pass  It connects Kashmir to China Khunjerab Pass  Situated between Gilgit and China  The Karakoram Highway originates from here. Karakoram  India's highest pass Pass  It connects Ladakh to China Siah-la  It is situated to the north-west of the Siachen Glacier. Bilafond Pass  It is situated to the west of Siachen.  The ancient silk route passed through. b- Ladakh Range  Location  It is located to the north of Leh.  It joins the Kailash Range in Tibet.  Geographical Conditions  This is a dry region where there is a lack of vegetation.  Peaks  Rakaposhi peak is on the Ladakh range.  Rakaposhi peak is the steepest peak in the world.  Drainage System  This range extends from Shyok River in the north to Indus River in the south.  Indus River cuts this mountain range at a place called Bunji and forms a 5200 meter deep gorge.  Pangong Lake is situated in it which is the highest salt water lake between India and China.  Pass Pass Description Khardung-la  World's second highest motorable pass  It connects Leh-Ladakh to Siachen. Umling la  World's highest motorable pass  It connects Demchok to China. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 8 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Aksai Chin  Aksai Chin is situated in this range. It is a disputed area, which has been occupied by China after the 1962 war.  The Indus river flows between the Jaskar and Ladakh ranges and cuts the Ladakh range at a place called 'Bunji' that form India's deepest gorge (5200 m deep). c- Kailash mountain range  It is a branch of the Ladakh mountain range, in Western Tibet.  Its average height is 5500-6000 m and its average width is 30 km.  Peaks  'Mount Kailash' is the highest peak of this mountain range, with the height of 6714 m.  The Indus river originates in Tibet from the northern slope of the Kailash mountain range. d- Zaskar mountain range  Location  The Zaskar mountain range is separated from the Great Himalayas along the 𝟖𝟎𝟎 East longitude line.  The Great Himalayas to its south and the Ladakh mountain range to the north of this range are spread parallelly.  Peaks  The average height of the Zaskar mountain range is 5800 m, but only a few of its peaks are higher than 6000 m.  ‘Nanga Parbat’ is the highest peak of this mountain range, whose height is 8126 m.  The length of this mountain range is about 300 km.  Passes Pass State Description Burjil Jammu and  It connects Srinagar to Gilgit-Balochistan. Kashmir Zojila Jammu and  The road from Srinagar to Kargil and Leh (NH-1D) passes Kashmir through this pass. Baralacha Himachal Pradesh  It connects Mandi and Leh. Shipkila Himachal Pradesh  The Sutlej river enters India from Tibet through this pass Himalayan Mountain Range  The Himalayas are one of the newest folded mountains in the world which was formed due to the folding of the sediments of the Tethys tectonic plateau.  This mountain range extends from the Indus River Gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra River Gorge in the east in a length of about 2500 km.  The width of the Western Himalayas is about 500 km while the width of the Eastern Himalayas is about 200 km. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 9 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  The total area of this mountain range is about 5 lakh sq. km.  The Pamir Plateau connects it with the high ranges of Central Asia.  Its southern boundary is clear through the foothills (300 m contour line), but the northern boundary is vague and joins the Tibetan Plateau. Macrostructural Features of the Himalayas Axis folds Structural Greater width of the features of the Arc shape Western Himalayas Himalayas Steep southern slope 1. Syntaxial folds  The Himalayas are found to have axial folds near Namcha Barwa and Nanga Parbat. Where rivers form Syntaxial Bends and the reason for its formation is the strong compressional force generated by the hard rocks of Aravalli in N-W and Shillong Plateau in N-E on the sediments of Tethys.  From here, the Himalayas turn and join the ranges like Purvanchal Himalayas in the east and Hindukush, Suleman in the west. 2. Arc shape  This is due to the retreat of the weaker rocks of the Himalayas because the rocks of Tibet were very strong. 3. Steep southern slope  Due to the relatively higher speed of the Indian plate, the southern slope of the Himalayas has become steep. 4. Western Himalayas being wider  Due to the collision of the plate in the east, the western part was relieved of pressure, which led to the expansion of the Western Himalayan ranges.  The width of the Western Himalayas is about 500 km, while the width of the Eastern Himalayas is about 200 km. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 10 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Greater Himalayas 1. Formation - It is formed by metamorphosed rocks formed during the Oleocene period. 2. Expansion - From Nanga Parbat in the west to Namcha Barwa mountain in the east. 3. Length - 2400 km. 4. Height - 6100 km. 5. Rivers - Ganga and Yamuna 6. Climate - Temperate climate is found. 7. Tourist places - Amarnath, Vaishno Devi, Wular Lake, Mountain peak Country/State Height above sea level (in metres) Bandarpoonch Uttarakhand Gangotri Uttarakhand Yamunotri Uttarakhand Kamet Uttarakhand Nar Uttarakhand Narayan Uttarakhand Trishul Uttarakhand Nanda Devi Nepal 7,817 Mount Everest (highest mountain in Nepal 8,848 the world) Makalu Nepal 8,481 Dhaulagiri India 8,172 Nanga Parbat (3rd highest mountain Nepal 8,l126 in India) Annapurna India 8,078 Kanchenjunga (highest mountain in Tibet 8,598 India) Namchabarwa Country/State 7,756 Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 11 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Geological conditions - 1. Foldings like symmetry, asymmetry, isocratic and crevasse are found here. 2. The rocks here are divided into four layers, upper sedimentary layer (made up of glaciers and alluvium), intermediate metamorphic layer (made up of schist etc.), lower layer (made up of Precambrian gneiss rocks) and internal rocks (composition of batholith made up of granite). 3. The MCT fault line looks like the valley of Kashmir, Kangra, Kathmandu and is affected by earthquakes.  Major passes Passes State Connectivity Niti Pass Uttarakhand  It connects Uttarakhand to Tibet. Mana Pass Uttarakhand  It is a way to Kailash Mansarovar.  Mana is the last village of India when going from India to Tibet. Lipulekh Pass Uttarakhand  It gives way to Mansarovar and Kailash Parvat.  The tri-junction of Nepal, China and Uttarakhand. Nathu La Sikkim  Connects Darjeeling, Chumbi Valley and Tibet. Jelepla Sikkim  Connects Kalimpong to Lhasa. Boom La Arunachal Pradesh  It was a trade route in ancient times. Tuju Pass Manipur  Connects Imphal to Myanmar. Yangyap Pass Arunachal Pradesh  The Brahmaputra river enters India through this pass.) Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh  It is the tri-junction of India, China, Myanmar border where the borders of all three countries are adjacent.) Likhapani  Connects Arunachal Pradesh to Myanmar. Drainage system:- Indus, Sutlej, Shyok, Gilgit. Middle/lesser Himalayas  It was formed in the Miocene period.  It is separated by the Main Central Region (MCT) in the south of the Greater Himalayas and the Main Boundry Fault (MBF) in the north of the Shivalik range.  Its average height is 1800 m - 3000 m but maximum height is up to 4500 m.  Its width is between 80 and 100 km.  There are many small ranges under the Lesser Himalayas which are as follows- 1. Pir Panjal Range  It is spread in Kashmir between the Jhelum and Beas rivers.  Height - 4000 meters  Western range of Lesser Himalayas Pass State Description Pir Jammu  Connects Kashmir valley with Rajouri and Poonch by a twin road. Panjal Kashmir Banihal Jammu  The only highway connecting Srinagar to Jammu, ‘NH-1(A)’ passes Kashmir through this pass.  Jawahar tunnel is situated in this pass. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 12 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Rohtang Himachal  Connects Kullu with Lahaul-Spiti valley. Pradesh  Atal tunnel (9.02 km) has been constructed. 2. Dhauladhar Range  Where Alaknanda crosses the Greater Himalayas near Badrinath, a range called Dhaulapur splits towards the west to the south of the main range.  It is the eastern range of the Lesser Himalayas.  Tourist Place - Chamba  Expansion -  It is spread mainly in Himachal Pradesh and partly in Uttarakhand.  Tourist Place -  The most important city on the Dhauladhar Range is Shimla, which was the summer capital of the British Government.  Other important cities situated on the Middle/lesser Himalayas are Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling, and Dalhousie. 3. Nagtibba Range -  Where Kali Gandak cuts the Greater Himalayas near Dhaulagiri Peak (Nepal), the Nagtibba Range goes towards the west. 4. Mahabharat Range - It expands in Nepal.  Valleys  Two open valleys have developed between the Lesser Himalayas and the Greater Himalayas a) Kashmir valley towards the west b) Kathmandu valley towards the east  Valleys like Kashmir and Kathmandu have been formed by the deposition of lakes. Dal lake and Wular lake found in Kashmir are the example for this phenomenon.  Climate  Snowfall occurs here in 3-4 months of winter while summer is pleasant.  Vegetation  Its southern slope is steep and devoid of vegetation while the northern slope is gentle and covered with dense forests.  Temperate evergreen forests such as pine, deodar, oak, pine are found at an altitude of 1500 m to 2400 m.  Coniferous forests such as spruce, fir, birch etc. are found between the altitudes of 2400 m to 3000 m.  Many pasture areas are found on the slopes of the central Himalayas. These are called Marg in Kashmir like Gulmarg, Son Marg and Bugyal and Pyaar in Uttarakhand.  Gulmarg is famous as a centre for winter sports. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 13 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Shivalik Himalayas  It is also called Outer Himalayas or Sub Himalayas.  Location  It is the outermost and newest range of the Himalayas.  This range is separated from the middle Himalayas by the Great Boundary Fault.  It is separated from the northern plain by HFF and a contour line of 300 m.  It is spread as a parallel range from Punjab in the west to Kosi river in the east (870 east latitude) that joins the middle Himalayas.  Average height  Its average height is 1200 m.  Formation period  Its formation period is considered to be from the Middle Miocene to the Lower Pleistocene period. It is basically made up of sediments brought by the Himalayan rivers and its upliftment is still continuing.  Regional name Jammu and Kashmir Jammu-Pahariya Uttarakhand Dundwa range Nepal Churia Muria Arunachal Dafla, Mishmi, Miri, Abor  Valleys  Between the Shivalik range and the central Himalayas, there is the Doon valley in the west and the Dwar valley in the east.  Other major valleys like Doon are Udhampur and Kotli in Jammu, Kota, Patali, Chumbi, Kiyadan, Kotri etc. in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.  Vegetation  Intensive agriculture is done in these valleys.  There are tropical moist deciduous forests here.  Rivers  Ganga, Yamuna, Kali and Teesta rivers flow.  Problems  Here there is excessive rainfall and intensity of erosion.  This area is affected from the problems of landslides, earthquakes, deforestation, de- industrialization.  There is a shortage of trees here. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 14 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Regional division of the Himalayas  A geologist named Sydney Burrard has classified the Himalayas on the basis of river valleys. He has determined the western boundary of the Himalayas by the Indus River and the eastern boundary by the Brahmaputra River.  He has described four regions of the Himalayas. 1. Kashmir Himalaya/Punjab Himalaya/Himachal Himalaya Extent From Indus river to Sutlej river, in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh states Length 560 km. Width 250 - 400 km. Mountain ranges Jaskar, Ladakh, Karakoram, Pir Panjal, Dhauldhar ranges Major peaks Rakaposhi Peak, Rivers Indus, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej Valleys Kashmir Valley (It is famous for saffron production.) Pass Zojila Pass, Rohtang Pass, Pir Panjal Pass, Banihal Pass, Lakes Dal, Wular Glaciers Hispar, Batula, Baltora 2. Kumaon Himalaya - This is a higher part than Punjab Himalaya. Expansion From Sutlej river to Kali river in Uttarakhand Length 320 km. Width 250-400 km. Part Western part Garhwal and eastern part Kumaon Himalaya Main peaks Badrinath, Kedarnath, Trishul, Mana, Gangotri, Nanda, Devi, Kamet Rivers Ganga and Yamuna originated from here. Valleys Doon valleys Pass Muling, Mana, Niti, Lipulekh Lakes Nainital, Bhumital and Sattal lakes Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 15 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 3. Nepal Himalaya- Regionally, this is the longest Himalayan part. Expansion From Kali to Tista river in Nepal and Sikkim Length 800 km. Width 100-150 km. Major peaks Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Everest, Manaslu, Dhaulagiri Rivers The origin of Ganga and Yamuna are here. Valleys Kathmandu Valley Pass Nathu La, Jelpla Special Kanchenjunga Biosphere and Pashupatinath Temple (Nepal) are situated in this part. 4. Assam Himalaya Expansion From Tista river to Brahmaputra river {in Bhutan, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh} Length 720 km. Width 50-70 km. Major peaks Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi, Namcha Barwa Rivers Brahmaputra, Diwang, Dihang, Lohit, Manas, Subhanshri Valleys Kathmandu valley Pass Bomdila, Boom La, Yangyap Special Kaziranga National Park and Digboi petroleum field are located. Purvanchal Hills Purvanchal Hills  They are also called Eastern Hills. They are a part of the Himalayan mountain system. Near Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas bend and become oriented in the north-south direction. State Purvanchal Hills Arunachal Pradesh Patkai Bum Nagaland Naga Hills, Kohima Range, Barail Hills Manipur Manipur Hills, Lamatol Hills Mizoram Mizo Hills Tripura Tripura Hills, Jampui Hills  Patkai Bum Hills -  State - Arunachal Pradesh  Pass - Pangsau Pass  National Park - Namdapha National Park Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 16 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Drainage System - Budhi River, Disang River  Naga Hills -  State - Nagaland  Highest Peak - Sharamati  Southern Part - Kohima Range  Barail Hills -  State - Nagaland and Assam  Sanctuary - Dihing-Patkai  National Park - Dibru-Shaikhowa  Manipur Hills -  State - Manipur  Loktak Lake is situated between Manipur Hills and Lamatol.  Mizo Hills -  State - Mizoram  Other Name - Lushai Hills  Highest Peak - Blue Mountain (Phengpui) Importance of Himalayas a- Natural  It forms a natural boundary. b- Climatic 1. It prevents the winter season become harsh by preventing the cold winds coming from Central Asia (Siberia) from entering India. 2. It causes rain by blocking the monsoon winds coming from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. 3. It helps in bringing monsoon to India by dividing the jet winds into two branches. c- Strategic 1. It has been protecting India from external invaders since ancient times. However, after the Chinese invasion in October 1962, the strategic importance of the Himalayas has decreased. d- Economic 1. Source of rivers  The Himalayas are the source of many important rivers.  These rivers remain perennial due to snow melting in summer.  The Himalayan rivers transport alluvial soil with them and provide fertile soil for agriculture.  Waterfalls situated in the Himalayas can be the main source of hydroelectricity (eg - Bakhda Nangal Dam). 2. Tourism  The world's highest mountain peaks are located here, such as Mount Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga, Makalu etc. These mountain peaks provide opportunities for adventure tourism. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 17 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  The Himalayas are a major center of tourism due to natural beauty, healthy environment and winter sports. Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala, Shimla, Kullu, Manali, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling, Gangtok, etc. are the major tourist centers here.  There are many pilgrimage sites in the Himalayas, among which Kailash, Mansarovar, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishno Devi, Jwala Devi, Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc. are prominent. 3. Forest products and medicines  The Himalayas are rich in forest resources which provide fuel wood, raw material for forest based industries, medicinal plants and pastures. 4. Agriculture and horticulture  Crops like rice, wheat, maize, tobacco, ginger, tea etc. are grown on the Himalayan slopes. Fruits like apple, grapes, pear, cherry, mulberry etc. are also produced. 5. Minerals  The Himalayas have minerals like mineral oil, anthracite coal, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony, tungsten etc. but their excavation is difficult due to inaccessible conditions. e- Environmental importance  This region also provides habitat for a diverse group of flora and fauna like tigers, elephants, musk deer, red panda, snow leopard, rhodender, orchid, rare medicinal plants etc. f- Water transport  National water ways have been built on the rivers originating from the Himalayas. For example - National Water Way-1 (Ganga River) National Water Way-2 (Brahmaputra River) Difference between Western and Eastern Himalayas Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas Expansion Extends from Indus to the western part In Sikkim, from the east of Singalila of Kali river. Mountain to the eastern border of the Himalayas. Main source Western disturbance (winter) South-west monsoon (in summer) of rainfall Amount of Very less than Eastern Himalaya region Average rainfall 200 cm. or more rainfall (average rainfall 100 cm or less) Biodiversity Comparatively less Comparatively high Biodiversity hot spots are also located here. Snow line Low than Eastern Himalayas (about Being close to the equator, high 3500 m. 2500 m) Drainage Ganga, Yamuna and Indus Teesta, Brahmaputra system Mountain Karakoram, Dhauladhar, Jaskar, Patkai Bum, Naga Hills and ranges Kailash, Pir Panjal etc. Kanchenjunga, Namcha Barwa Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 18 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Forests Coniferous and coniferous forests are Evergreen forests are found. found Minerals Minerals are available in less quantity. abundance of petrolium. Vast Plain of India  This plain is situated between the Himalaya mountain range and peninsular India.  This fertile plain has been formed by the deposition of soil brought by rivers originating from the Himalayas (like Ganga, Yamuna, Sindhu, Brahmaputra, Kosi etc.) and rivers coming from peninsular India (like Son, Chambal etc.)  This is the world's largest alluvial plain whose length is 3200 km from the Indus delta to the Ganges delta, out of which 2400 km is located in India. Average Width  The average width of this plain is 150-300 km. The maximum width is in the west (500 km). Its width decreases towards the east. (280 km near Allahabad, 160 km near Rajmahal Hills, 60-70 km in Assam).  The area of this plain is approximately 7.8 sq. km.  Its average height from sea level is 200 m.  Its depth is approximately 6100 m.  On the basis of structural features and slope, we divide this plain into the following four parts. Bhabhar Terai Bangar Khadar (a) Bhabar  In the foothills of Shivalik, from east to west from Indus to Teesta, there is a region full of pebbles and stones.  These alluvial fans together form a 8-16 km wide strip which is called Bhabar which forms the northern boundary of the great plain.  Due to high porosity, the rivers flowing here disappear i.e. they flow under the pebbles and stones and are not visible from above. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 19 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  This region is not suitable for agriculture. (b) Terai region  It is spread just south of Bhabar region. Deposits of fine sand and clay soil are found here.  Since this region is quite flat, the water of the rivers spreads here and there and forms swamps.  This region was covered with dense forests which are currently being cut and converted into agricultural land.  This area is not suitable for human habitation. (c) Bangar  This is a plain formed by ancient alluvium of the Middle Pleistocene period.  This is a higher region than Khadar.  Flood water generally does not reach this region.  The Bangar region is mainly found in the areas between two rivers (Doab region).  The Doab of Ganga-Yamuna and the plain of Sutlej are examples of this.  Bangar has two regional divisions - (1) Barind Plain (2) Bhur region. 1. Barind Plain'  'Barind Plain' is located in the deltaic areas of Bengal and in reality it is the ancient delta of Ganga. It was formed in the Pleistocene period and has again eroded to become an area of laterite soil. 2. Bhur  The Bhur structure has developed in the region of Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. It is formed by deposition by wind in the Pleistocene period.  Due to excessive irrigation in some areas of Bangarh soil, white layers of salt get deposited on the land. This is known as 'Reh' or 'Kallar'. (d) Khadar  It is formed by the deposition of new alluvium and is a relatively low region.  Due to the abundance of 'Chika' in the soil of this land, the capacity to retain moisture is high.  Flood water of rivers reaches here almost every year, due to which it remains fertile.  The regions of Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal which are adjacent to river valleys come under Khadar region.  The delta region of Ganga-Brahmaputra is also an example of Khadar.  In Uttar Pradesh and its neighbouring regions, such low lying areas are called Khadar while in Punjab it is called 'Bet'. Difference between Bhabar and Terai Bhabar Terai Expansion It is spread from Sindhu river to It is spread along the south of Bhabar region. Tista river in the foothills of Shivalik. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 20 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Width 8 to 16 kilometers 20 to 30 kilometers Geographical Due to the deposition of heavy Region made up of fine-grained alluvium conditions stones, pebbles, gravel etc., it is a and covered with forests region of permeable rocks. Visibility of Due to permeable rocks, most of the The underground rivers of Bhabar region rivers rivers go underground and become come to the surface in Terai and swamps are invisible. formed. Agriculture This region is not suitable for The forests have been cleared and made agriculture. suitable for agriculture. Difference between Bangar and Khadar Bangar Khadar 1. It is a high part made up of old alluvial soil. 1. It is a low region made up of new alluvial soil. 2. The Bangar region is higher than the flood 2. There is flood every year in the Khadar region level. and a new layer of alluvium is laid. 3. It has abundance of lime-rich deposits called 3. It is mainly a region made up of clay soil. 'Kankad'. 4. Intensive agriculture is done here. 4. It is not very useful for agriculture. 5. In the plains of Punjab, it is called 'Bet'. 5. In the plains of Punjab, it is called 'Dhaya'. 6. Its slope is low. 6. Its slope is high. Regional division of the Great Northern Plains  Although the entire Great Northern Plains is considered as one geographical unit with very flat and gentle slopes (1:1000 to 1:2000), it can be divided into four parts on the basis of regional characteristics. Rajasthan Plain Punjab Gangetic The Brahmaputra Haryana Plain Plain Plain Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 21 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Rajasthan Plain Extension  It is spread from Aravalli Hills to Indo-Pak border for a length of about 640 km.  50 cm isohyet line which is parallel to Aravalli forms its eastern boundary.  It includes both semi-arid area and desert area situated to the west of Aravalli.  Area  Its area is about 1.75 lakh sq. km.  Slope  Its slope is from north-east to south-west.  Average height Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 22 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Its average height is about 325 m.  The slope of this plain is from north-east to south-west.  This plain influenced by sea during Permi-Carboniferous period, the proof of which are saline water filled lakes found here like Sambhar, Didwana etc. and oil and gas reserves.  Division  25 cm isohyet line divides it into the following two parts. a. Rajasthan Bangar (Semi-arid region)  This is a semi-arid region in which annual rainfall is 25 to 50 cm.  This Bangar plain has Ghaggar basin in the north and Luni basin in the south.  Ghaggar is the remains of Saraswati river.  Luni river reaches the Arabian Sea through Rann of Kutch.  Here the Aravalli ranges appear like inselbergs on the pediplain. ‘Dhoro’ Dried ancient river valleys Dhaya Embankments of ancient rivers Thali Northern part of Luni river which is a sandy desert. ‘Rohi‘ Alluvial and fertile soil area b. Desert region (Western Rajasthan Plain)  It is 25 cm lower than Rajasthan by isohyet.  It was a part of Tethys Sea from Jurassic to Eocene period. It was formed due to the retreat of Tethys Sea.  It is an extension of Thar Desert. Dhryan Displacing sand dunes Talli Downhills between sand dunes Playa Basins of dry lakes like- Sambhar, Didwana, Panchpradha  Some special trees like Khetri are found here.  Excessive animal grazing and use of fuelwood is the cause of less vegetation, which is promoting the process of desertification. Minerals - Gypsum, coal, limestone, copper (Khetri), marble, mineral oil etc. are found here. Soil - 90-95 percent of the total soil here is sand while 5-7 percent is clay. Agriculture - Although there is a lack of cultivable land in Rajasthan, agriculture still has an important place in the economy here. Change in land use taking place because of Indira Gandhi Canal and Rajasthan ranks 5th in the country in wheat production. Animal husbandry  The main occupation of this state is animal husbandry. 60 percent of the land of Bikaner division and 50 percent of the land of Jodhpur division is found in the form of pastures. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 23 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Industry  This region is industrially backward. Most of the industries are cottage and small scale in which agriculture based industries are predominant.  Ganganagar (cotton cloth, woolen cloth, chemicals), Bikaner (woolen cloth, lead, iron pipes) Khetri (copper) are the main industrial centres. Salt is produced from Sambhar (India's largest inland salt water lake), didwana and Kuchaman lakes. Transport  Means of transport have developed considerably here.  The Delhi Ahmedabad railway line passes along the eastern border of this region and the Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur railway line passes through its central part.  The road has been developed to connect Bikaner and Jodhpur with other cities. Special -  In this region, the flat depressions surrounded by hills are called 'Walsans' and the small lakes with flat and flowing basins are called 'Pyala'. Plain of Punjab Haryana  It is named so because of the doab of 5 rivers. Sindhu Sagar Doab Between Indus and Jhelum rivers Chhaj Doab Between Jhelum and Chenab Rechna Doab Between Ravi and Chenab rivers Bari Doab Between Ravi and Beas rivers Bist Doab Between Beas and Sutlej rivers Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 24 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Punjab Plains Punjab Plains Haryana Plains Semi- Plains mountainous Plains Bari Doab Malwa Vist Doab Plains 1. Plain of Punjab  The plain of Punjab can be divided into two parts from the viewpoint of geographical conditions. (a) Semi-mountainous plain  It is spread from Ravi river to Ghaggar river in the foothills of Shivalik hills.  Numerous rivers flow rapidly here which are called Chos.  These rivers have caused a lot of erosion in this region.  It is not very fertile due to the deposition of pebbles, floods etc.  The rainfall here is about 120 mm.  The climate here is temperate and moist.  Pine trees etc. are found in the higher regions whereas broad-leafed trees like Ashoka and Deodar are found in the lower regions. Maize, rice, potatoes, tea and fruits can be grown in terraced fields in valleys and slopes. Limestone and slate are found here. (b) Plain region  It can again be divided into 3 parts. A. Bari Doab B. Bist Doab C. Malwa Plain  Malwa Plain/Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain  This plain is situated to the south of Sutlej. Rainfall  The average annual rainfall here is 75-120 cm. This region has a semi-arid climate. Soil  Alluvial soil is generally found here, both Khadar and Bangar are included. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 25 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  At many places, due to waterlogging, the soil has become alkaline and saline, which is called Reh or Kallar.  The Bangar region is called Dhaya and the Khadar region is called Bet. Irrigation  75 percent of the area here is irrigated. Because - (1) Himalayan rivers flow (2) Digging wells is convenient as the surface is soft Vegetation  Forests are found only on 3.3% of the total area.  Here you find pointed-leafed trees - pine and broad-leafed trees - deodar.  Due to deforestation, there is a dearth of wildlife, however, deer, wolves, foxes, many kinds of birds, peacocks etc. are found. Agriculture  The agriculture of Punjab has the following characteristics.  The land is fertile due to the abundance of alluvial soil.  Irrigation facility is available on 70-75% of the area.  Here the land is not divided into small pieces, due to which full use of land and modern agriculture is possible.  Every area of Punjab is connected by roads, hence marketing is easy.  Modern agriculture is done due to green revolution.  In Punjab, maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, rice, groundnut, Kharif crops and wheat, barley, rice, rye, peas, mustard, Rabi crops are grown. Animal husbandry  Apart from grains, farmers of Punjab are dependent on fruits, vegetables, milk and butter for food.  Hence, buffaloes of good breed and foreign cows are reared for milk.  Sheep and goats are reared near the mountainous areas.  Importance giving to silkworm rearing and beekeeping nowadays. Minerals  There is a lack of mineral-rich rocks here, yet quartz stones of the Shivalik ranges are found.  Excellent sand, building stone, ochre stone and Multani soil are found here. Industry  Textile industry (Amritsar, Ludhiana) and light engineering industries like agricultural equipment, sewing machines, bicycles etc. are developed in the plains of Punjab.  Apart from this, big factories were also set up in cities like Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Kapurthala. Transport  Grand Trunk Road passes through here.  Amritsar has an international airport, Chandigarh, Ludhiana and Patiala have domestic airports. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 26 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 2. Haryana Plain  This plain is bounded by Ghaggar river and Thar desert in the south-west, Shivalik hills in the north-east, Punjab plain in the north, Yamuna river in the east and Aravali hills in the south.  Since it is situated between Ghaggar and Yamuna river, it is made up of alluvial soil.  Here there are sand dunes made of bangar, the lower parts in between which are called Talli.  When these get filled with water during rainy season, temporary lakes like Dhandh are formed. Climate  Here the temperature in summer remains up to 400c and in the areas near Thar desert it remains up to 450c.  The average temperature in winter remains 140c.  The average annual rainfall here is 40 cm, but in the mountainous region of the north, rainfall up to 200 cm has been recorded. Natural vegetation  Natural vegetation is often absent in the plains of Haryana.  Forests are found only on 3.7% of the land. Date palm, cactus, babul, shrubs are found here and pine and monsoon trees are found in the humid parts of the north.  A bird sanctuary has been developed near Sultanpur. State parks have been built for the protection of deer in Kurukshetra and Hisar. Irrigation  Haryana is an agriculture-dominated state, where irrigation is done through canals. 84% of the total land here is irrigated. Agriculture  75% of the population of Haryana is engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry.  Food grains are produced on 60% of the total agricultural land.  Hisar Agricultural University benefits the farmers by doing continuous research here.  Wheat, gram, sugarcane and barley are Rabi crops and rice, sorghum, maize are Kharif crops. Animal husbandry  The country's important milk-giving breeds Haryanvi cows, Murrah buffaloes are found here.  Poultry farming is done in Gurugram and Ambala.  Fish farming is done in Yamuna-Ghaggar and reservoirs. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 27 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Minerals Industry  Panipat, Sonipat, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Rohtak, Bhiwani etc. are industrial centers here.  There is an Atlas bicycle factory in Sonipat. Transportation  All the villages here are connected by paved roads.  Railways are developed in Ambala, Rohtak, etc.  There are airports in Hisar, Karnal, Bhiwani. Problem  Soil salinity has increased due to excessive irrigation.  Fertility has decreased due to excessive use of urea. Importance  It is the leading region in production per hectare. Ganga Plain Expansion  This plain is about 1400 km long from Yamuna river in the west to the western border of Bengal in the east and 300 km wide. It is spread between Shivalik and Peninsular plateau. Total area  About 3.5 lakh sq. km. Classification  It can be divided into the following three parts. Ganga Plain Upper Ganga Plain Middle Ganga Plain Lower Ganga Plain Rohilkhand Plain Awadh Plain Duar Region Peradelta Mithila Plain Ganga-Yamuna Doab Rarh Delta Region Chambal Upland Magadha Plain Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 28 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 1. Upper Ganga Plain  State area Uttarakhand and Western Uttar Pradesh  This part of the plain is bounded by Delhi-Ambala Ridge, Yamuna River in the west and 100 meter contour line or 100 cm isohyet line in the east.  Its northern boundary is determined by 300 meter contour line which separates it from Garhwal, Kumaon Himalayas and the southern boundary is formed by Yamuna River which separates it from Bundelkhand Plateau.  Rohilkhand Plain  The area between Ganga and Gomti or adjoining the Terai, is named Rohilkhand because of the Afghan tribe called Rohila.  Here is flood affected Barley area.( 90-100 cm rainfall flood )  Here mainly sandy 100 m.  Highest point of the plain is Moradabad (290 m)  Ganga Yamuna Doab  Here soil containing 100 m of clay deposited by wind is found which is called Bhur and it is beneficial for sugarcane cultivation because it has high water holding capacity.  Doab region.  Very fertile and despite of rainfall 75-90 cm., there is appropriate development of canals.  Chambal-Yamuna Erosion Land  Chambal and its tributary rivers have created a large erosion area in India. Where ravines developed on the bare soil due to overgrazing.  It is sub-humid region.Here rainfall is 70-80 cm. Description of the Upper Ganga Plain Physical Conditions  This plain is almost a flat plain, but in between, Khadar and Bangar land hinder the uniformity of this region.  In its north, parallel to the Shivalik Hills, semi-mountainous plains are found and in the south-west, Yamuna ravines are found.  The general height of the plain is 100 to 270 meters.  This plain is made up of fertile alluvial soil brought by rivers like Yamuna, Ganga, Ramganga and Ghaghra originating from the Himalayas. Hence, it is naturally more fertile.  The slope of this plain is from north-west to south-east. Drainage  This region is mainly a part of the Ganga river system, whose main rivers are Yamuna, Ghaghra, Sharda, Saryu, Kali River, Gomti etc.  Almost all the rivers flow from north-west to south-east. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 29 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  The main rivers originating from Shivalik in the north are Panja, Solani, Ratbhau, Pilashwar and Makkara.  The rivers originating from Terai and Bhabar are Kali, Sukhta and Gomti.  In the far north, Yamuna, Ganga, Ramganga and Ghaghara originate from the main Himalayas. Climate  This plain is a sub-humid region situated between the dry Punjab plain and the humid middle Ganga plain.  Generally, the climate of this region is continental.  Hot winds blow in summer and cold in winter here. Distribution of rainfall  Most of the rainfall occurs from the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west monsoon. The annual rainfall is about 60 cm, but the northern and eastern parts receive more rainfall. Natural vegetation - Tropical deciduous forest  Due to continuous increase in population, most of the forest areas cleared for the need of land for agriculture, transport routes and settlements. Hence, at present, forests are found only on 7.5% of the area. Agriculture  Agriculture is the main occupation of the residents of this state. Food grains and pulses are grown on 85% of the area. Sugarcane is grown in about 8% of the area and oilseeds, cotton, fruits, vegetables, etc. are grown on the remaining part. Minerals  This region is not very important in the production of minerals because the entire plain is made up of alluvial soil. Limestone, silica, phosphate, special clays and magnesite are the main minerals here. There are two hydroelectric power organizations in this region. 1. Ganga Hydroelectric Organization Scheme 2. Sharda Organization  An atomic power plant near Narora is also very important here. National Thermal Power Corporation has also established super thermal power plants in Singrauli, Rihand and Delhi. Natural gas based power plants are operational in Odia and Dadri. Industry  Most of the expensive consumer goods are produced in small and medium industries. Under the big industries, cotton textile, sugar, engineering, leather, woolen textile, oil refinery, electronics, petro- chemical, fertilizer, vehicle and glass industries have been established. Transportation  Due to the uniformity and flatness of the surface, there is a network of transport routes here. Northern Railway, North-Eastern Railway, Central Railway pass through this plain. Grand Trunk Road and other national highways pass through this area. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 30 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 2. Middle Ganga Plain Location and expansion -  State area Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar  It’s western boundary starts from the upper plain of Ganga.  35 m in the east and Kosi river and 75 m contour line in the south and 300 m contour line in the north, between which is the international boundary of Nepal in the humid north.  150 m contour line in the south, its southern boundary is the Chhota Nagpur plateau and the northern part of the Vindhyachal plateau.  The western boundary is determined by the 100 cm rainfall line. Three parts 1. Avadh Plain  Between Gomti and Ghaghra, Eastern U.P., flood affected, 100 m rainfall, dense population, subsistence agriculture. 2. Mithila Plain  Plain with flood-prone rivers which is situated between Ghaghra and Kosi.  Rivers change their course  Rainfall 125 cm.  Deforestation in the Terai region  Abundance Ponds, lakes.  Natural availibility of fish. 3. Magadh Plain  The land between the Son and Ganga has high soil fertility because mineral-rich sediments are brought by the plateau rivers, humid area, rainfall 100-125 m. But droughts are common because agriculture is rain-fed. Description of the Middle Ganga Plain Drainage  Tree-shaped water flow.  The rivers meet each other making a turn.  The Ganga is the main river of this entire plain region.  Its tributaries are Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Son, each of which has its own separate flow systems. Kosi river is called the grief of Bihar due to its terrible floods. Climate  This plain has intermediate conditions due to being situated between the dry Upper Ganga plain in the west and the very humid Lower Ganga plain in the east.  Monsoon winds prone area.  The eastern part of this region also receives rainfall due to the Norwester winds in March-April- May. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 31 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  The average rainfall in the eastern part is up to 170 cm, while the western part receives 100 cm rainfall.  The average temperature in summer is 30-340 Celsius.  May is the hottest month in the year.  The winter season is usually dry.  Sometimes temperate cyclones cause rainfall, which is beneficial for the Rabi crop.  One more characteristic of this plain is that drought and floods occur simultaneously.  Drought disrupts the economy of the western part and floods disrupt the economy of the eastern regions. Natural vegetation - Tropical deciduous forests  At present, forest areas are found only in Champaran district and the Terai region.  Swampy vegetation and fruit gardens are found in the plains of North Bihar, but in the southern part, mainly open forests and Shisham and Sabai grass are found here and there.  Sal forests are found in the Shivalik region of Champaran. Soils  Fertile alluvial soil is found everywhere.  Both types of land, Khadar and Bangar, are found here, where alluvial soil and sandy and pebbly soil are found respectively. Industry  Agriculture based industries have developed a lot in this region. Soda ash and aluminium chloride factory in Varanasi, diesel engine and heavy engineering goods manufacturing factory and aluminium factory in Pipri and Renukoot have been established. 3. Lower Ganga Plain Location  State West Bengal  The eastern boundary of this plain is the international border between India and Bangladesh.  From the foothills of Darjeeling Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south, from the Chhota Nagpur Plateau in the south-west to Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal in the south. 1. Dooars region  Valley region of the Darjeeling mountain range  Semi-mountainous region 2. Para Delta  Where rivers form erosional plains, this is the delta region which is called Sundarban Delta because of the Sundari tree. And it is filled with sand dunes and marshy lakes which are called 'Chuar and beel' respectively. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 32 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 3. Rar Plain  In the southern part of the delta, adjacent to Chhota Nagpur, is the Rar Plain which is less fertile and some places are barren.  The high land containing laterite is called Barind. 4. Delta Plains  The most extensive plains. Inland fishing and jute cultivation. Description of the Lower Ganga Plain Physical Conditions  Except the northern and south-western parts, the entire region is a flat plain, whose average height is 50 meters from the sea level.  The southern part is only 15 meters above the sea level.  The Darjeeling mountainous region in the north and the high eastern edges of the Chhota Nagpur plateau in the south-west determine its boundary.  Khadar and marshy land are found in abundance in the entire region. Drainage Area  The main rivers of this region are Ganga and Brahmaputra.  Padma, Bhagirathi, Mahananda, Karatoya, Tista Sankosh, etc. rivers originate from the Himalayas and meet the Ganga. Climate  The location of this region particularly affects its climate.  The Bay of Bengal in the south, the high parts of the Himalayan mountain range in the north, the plateau of Meghalaya in the north-east all affect its climate.  Except the western part of this region, the relative humidity is above 50 percent in all other parts. Rainfall  Rainfall in this region usually occurs from June to September due to the south-western monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal. The rainfall ranges from 160 cm to 400 cm.  In winter, the north-eastern monsoon winds do not cause rain as they blow from the land. Only when they start blowing over the Bay of Bengal, they get filled with some steam.  Thus, some rainfall occurs in the coastal areas.  Some rainfall occurs in the pre-monsoon period from March to May due to 'Kaal Vaishakhi' or 'Norbesters'.  Thus, it rains here from March to October. Natural Vegetation  The forests here have been getting destroyed since the Mughal period.  Warm deciduous forests are found in the western part of this region, moist warm forests in the northern part and warm moist evergreen forests in the deltaic region. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 33 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Agriculture -  Paddy and jute are cultivated in this region. Brahmaputra Plain / Assam Plain  This is an international plain which is located in India and Bangladesh.  It is 700 km long and 80 km wide from Sadiya in the east to Dhubri in the west.  Its area is approximately 56.2 thousand sq. km.  Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh are located in its north, Meghalaya and Tripura in the south, Bangladesh in the west and Nagaland and Manipur in the south-east.  Slope - from north to south-west  Forest - Tropical evergreen forest  It can be divided into two parts. a. Upper Brahmaputra Plain  Location  It is located between Dihang and Subansiri.  Rainfall  Approximately 200 cm.  Vegetation  Semi-evergreen forest  This area is prone to floods, earthquakes and landslides.  The world's largest river island Majuli is situated here.  It is dotted with flood-prone rivers, Brahmaputra, Subansiri, Dibang, Lohit, Manas, Kamla.  Landslide sediments from Shivalik increase the depression here, due to which the world's largest river island Majuli is formed. b. Lower Brahmaputra Plain  It is situated between Subansiri and Teesta rivers.  Rainfall - 150 m. Rainfall  Rivers  Brahmaputra, Teesta  Agriculture  Due to marshy land and bamboo thickets, agriculture is done on only 25 percent of the area. Food grains (mainly rice) are grown on 75 percent of the agricultural land, tea, jute, sugarcane, etc. commercial crops are grown on 20 percent of the land and fruits and vegetables are grown on the remaining 5 percent of the land.  Minerals  Apart from mineral oil and coal, no other important mineral is found here.  Mineral oil wells are found in Digboi, Naharkatiya of Lakhimpur district. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 34 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  Coal is found here in the form of lignite and peat. Importance of Northern Plains 1. Fertile alluvial soil which is important for food security. 2. Perennial rivers which are the source of drinking water and irrigation. 3. Rich ground water. 4. Suitable for inland water transport due to gentle slope. 5. Development of roads and railways for infrastructure is relatively easy. 6. Suitable for industrialization and urbanization. 7. Many tourist places like Agra, Mathura, Varanasi, Prayagraj, Haridwar etc. 8. Petroleum and gas reserves are located in sedimentary rocks. 9. Ganga-Jamuna culture developed on the banks of rivers. 10. It supplies food grains to 40% of India's population. Peninsular Plateau of India 1. It is the Pre Cambrian Gondwana Shield. 2. It is surrounded by hills on three sides, Aravali in the north, Rajmahal, Western Ghats in the west and Eastern Ghats in the east. 3. It is of irregular triangular shape, whose apex is at Kanyakumari and base is at Rajmahal Hills and Delhi Ambala Ridge. 4. It is spread over 16 lakh sq. km. in the south-western part of 220 latitude. 5. From the geological point of view, it has remained stable and intact from tectonic processes for millions of years. Hence, there is influence of exogenous forces on the geo-physical structure. 6. This region is composed of discontinuous hills, chain plateaus, valleys, plains. 7. It is basically made up of crystalline granite and rocks on which metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and lava of Deccan are found. 8. It is spread over 28% of India's land area. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 35 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Division of Peninsular Plateau – Peninsular Plateau of India Central highlands Deccan Plateau Northern Central Southern Central Eastern Northern Southern Deccan Highlands Highlands Deccan Plateau Plateau Baghelkhand Aravalli Malwa Plateau Plateau Satpura Karnataka mountain range Vindhya Kagari Chhotanagpur Mountain Range Plateau Hadoti Plateau region Plateau Maharashtra Andhra Central India Vindhya Dandakaranya Plateau Plateau Plateau Mountain Range Plateau Bundelkhand Narmada-Son Orissa Hills Plateau Valley Mahanadi Basin Central Highland Location  Yamuna basin in the north, Narmada fault line in the south, Aravalli in the west and Son river in the east form its boundary. It is called the plateau of Central India which is made up of marine sedimentary fossil-rich rocks of Vindhya.  Central Highland can be divided into the following sub-divisions. 1. Aravalli mountain range 2. Mewar plateau 3. Malwa plateau 4. Bundelkhand plateau 5. Vindhya mountain range 6. Baghelkhand plateau 7. Chota Nagpur plateau Aravalli Range  Its expansion from Khedbrahma (Palanpur) of Gujarat to Raisina Hill of Delhi.  Its length is 692 cm out of which 550 km. is in Rajasthan.  Its average height is 930 meters. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 36 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by  It is the oldest mountain range of the world (Precambrian period) which is currently present in the form of residual mountains.  The Aravalli mountain range is 9 percent of the total area of Rajasthan.  10 percent of the total population of Rajasthan lives here. Rainfall  The rainfall here is 50-90 cm Rocks  Metamorphic rocks of Precambrian period like gneiss  Sedimentary rocks like-Kanglomret, sandstone (balua patthar) fiijh njkZ  Marine sedimentary rocks like- Vindhya Soil  Black soil gYnh?kkVh njkZ Main crops  Maize Minerals  Rich in terms of minerals  There are huge reserves of copper, lead, zinc, silver, granite, marble, limestone, iron, aluminium etc. Tribes  Bhil (Pratapgarh-Banswana) and Meena (Udaipur) tribes live here. Watershed  This is the watershed of the plains of Rajasthan and the plains of Ganga Importance  Religious - Dilwara, Pushkar, Ajmer  Tourism - Mount Abu  Economic - Abundance of minerals  Division 1. Delhi Ambala Cuttack (Raysina)  This is a very low land. The length of Northern Aravali between Ghaggar and Luni is up to 300 m., 80 to 90 cm rainfall, granite gneiss, schist rocks are spread. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 37 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by 2. Northern Aravali  This is spread in Jhunjhunu, Alwar, Sikar and Jaipur districts.  Raghunathgarh (1055 m.), Malkhet (1052 m.) are situated in Sikar district and Kho Hills are situated in Jaipur district.  Khetri of Jhunjhunu is famous for the production of copper while Javra is famous for the production of zinc and silver. 3. Central Aravalli  It is between Luni and Western Banas (goes to Kutch) (Eastern Banas merges with Chambal).  From north to south, respectively, Bar Pass, Sheopur (Shivpur) Pass, Sura Ghat, Pipli Ghat, Diwari Pass are found.  Western desert is expanding towards east through these passes/ghats.  Here the height reaches upto 250 m. It is a semi-arid region. It is divided from Malwa by 50 cm isohyet line. 4. South Aravalli  Between Banas and Saraswati in Rajsamand, Udaipur and Sirohi districts.  The average height of Abu hill and Palani hill is 800-1700 m because Mount Abu has been re-raised in the process of origin of Himalayas.  This is an example of elevated peneplain.  The highest peak in Sirohi is Guru Shikhar (1722 m) on Mount Abu which is a major pilgrimage site for Jains.  Nakki Lake, Dewar Lake, Pushkar Lake are found in Mount Abu. Rajasthan High Land / Hadauti Plateau  This is the high western part of the Indian Peninsular Plateau  To its west are the Aravali Mountains, to the east are the Malwa Plateau, to the south are the Vindhya mountain range and to the north-east are the Yamuna plains.  The slope of this region is towards the north-east, so the water of this region merges with Yamuna and its tributaries.  Since this has been the kingdom of Rajput kings, it is also called Rajput region.  Banas river (tributary of Chambal) originates from this region. a. Climate  Since the Tropic of Cancer passes through its middle, its temperature in summers is more than 40°C, but in winters it is 16°C. The average annual rainfall is 60-120 cm. b.Vegetation  Generally, trees like Babul, Sheesham, Jamun, Mahua, Neem, Khejri etc. are found here.  In the lower parts, grasslands are found in which animal husbandry is being done.  Due to extreme deforestation, forests are found only on 10 percent of the land area. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 38 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Agriculture  Due to uneven terrain and infertile land, agriculture is done only on 25-30 percent of the area.  Agriculture is mainly done on river valleys, hill slopes and flat plateau regions.  Most of the agriculture is rain based. Jowar, millet, gram, pulses, wheat are the main crops here.  In the areas where irrigation facilities are available from wells and ponds, sugarcane, vegetables and crops are cultivated there. Dairy industry is also developing rapidly here. Minerals NksVk ukxiqj  This region is rich in minerals. Zinc, lead, iron, dk iBkj mica, copper, marble, lime etc. are found here. egkunh csflu Industry  Due to lack of energy resources, this state deprive of development. In southern Rajasthan, cutting of white colored building stones has developed as an important industry. Stone cutting machines have n.Mdkj.; been installed on both sides of National Highway No. dk iBkj 6 (Delhi-Mumbai) in Jaipur, Ajmer and Udaipur.  Cement factories are located in Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Sawai Madhopur.  Here the cotton textile factories are in Alwar, Jaipur and Kota. Apart from this, woolen and silk textile industries, jewellery and shoe factories are also developed. Transportation  The main means of transport are road and railway. The western railway line is spread across this entire region.  Malwa Plateau  Check in M.P. G.K.  Bundelkhand  Check in M.P. G.K.  Vindhya Pradesh  Check in M.P. G.K. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 39 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Eastern Plateau and Hills  It has 5 secondary regions. 1. Baghelkhand Plateau 2. Chhota Nagpur Plateau 3. Chhattisgarh Plains/ Mahanadi Basin 4. Dandakaranya Plateau 5. Hills of Orissa/ Garhjat Hills a. Baghelkhand Plateau b. Chhota Nagpur Plateau  Location  It has the lower plains of Ganga in the east, Baghelkhand Plateau in the west, Middle Ganga Plain in the north and the northern part of Eastern Ghats in the south.  It is not a single plateau but is spread as a series of plateaus and each plateau is separated from each other by fault brinks (Bhransh Kagar).  The contour line of 500 feet separates it from the plains of Bihar (Middle Ganga Plains).  Geographical Features  Before the Tertiary period, due to erosion, the Jharkhand plateau was converted into a plain. During the formation of the Himalayas, the westernmost part of Jharkhand, Pat Pradesh, was uplifted in the Eocene period. During the Miocene period, the area east of Pat region, the plateau block of Ranchi and Hazaribagh, rose up after being affected by the upliftment and the height of Pat region increased further.  Rocks Archean Granite and Gneiss  Archean Granite and Gneiss are found in Ranchi, Gumla etc. which are called Bengal or Chhota Nagpur Gneiss. Rocks of Dharwad series  Rocks of Archaean period  Example - Quartzite, Phyllite, Schist rocks  Metallic and non-metallic minerals (iron ore, copper, chromite, uranium) are found in the Dharwad rocks of West Singhbhum, whereas mica is produced in the schist rocks of Hazaribagh Koderma. Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 40 7970002214 Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672  Powered by Rocks of Vindhya series  Sandstone, quartzite, limestone and dolomitic limestone are found here. Gondwana series rocks  Carboniferous period Gondwana series rocks are present in Jharia and Raniganj of Damodar valley where sandstone and coal are found. Rajmahal Trap  Developed due to lava flow in Jurassic period  Division a. Pat region  Its western part is the highest which is called Pat region which is spread in Palamu, Lohardagga and Gumla.  Pat means hills with flat peaks. Remains of Deccan lava are found in this region. b- Hazaribagh Plateau and Ranchi Plateau  The fault line of Damodar river divides it into Hazaribagh Plateau and Ranchi Plateau Hazaribagh Plateau Physical conditions  That region is made up of Archaean granite and gneiss rocks.  Its northern and southern part is made up of Dharwad rocks.  You must be found Gondwana rocks in Damodar river Ghati.  Deposition of basaltic red soil is found on the Rajmahal hills.  The highest hill of this region is Parasnath (pilgrim place of Jainism) (1365 m) (Hazari Bagh-610