Geography Development Dynamics Test 2 PDF

Development How development is defined: A country’s development depends on social, economic, political and environmental factors. Single and Composite indicators: Single indicators: Key: Social Economic - Life expectancy: Average number of years that a newborn can expect to live - Infan...

Development How development is defined: A country’s development depends on social, economic, political and environmental factors. Single and Composite indicators: Single indicators: Key: Social Economic - Life expectancy: Average number of years that a newborn can expect to live - Infant mortality rate: Number of deaths to infants under 1 years of age per 1000 live births per year - GDP per capita: GDP divided by the population gives GDP per person - Fertility rate: Total number of children born to each woman over her lifetime - PPP (Purchasing power parity): GDP is now measured in PPP which shows what $1 will buy in each country - Maternal mortality rate: deaths related to pregnancy yearly per 10000 live births - GDP: The total value of goods and services produced by a country each year ($US) - Poverty line: The minimum income required to meet someone's basic needs - the World Bank uses $1.90 per person, per day - Literacy rate: The % of those aged over 15 who can read and write - GNI: A measure of national wealth including wealth created outside of the country by companies or corporations - Birth rate: Number of births per 1000 of the population per year - Death rate: Number of deaths per 1000 people per year Composite indicators: HDI: Calculated using an average of four indicators: life expectancy, adult literacy rates, average length of schooling and GDP per capita. It is a better way of measuring development than single indicators as it considers multiple factors instead of just one. There are four levels that a country can be ranked into: Very high, high, low, and very low. How demographic data changes with development as well as how population structure/population pyramids change with development. As development increases in a country the likelihood of fertility rates, death rates, maternal and infant mortality rates will drop as medicine will improve and hospitals will become more accessible to people. If the infant mortality rates drop, the population structure will change as parents will have fewer children in the hopes that they live and women can get jobs. So the population structure could change from a pyramid shape to a barrel shape instead. An example is the Malawi population pyramid which has a broad base because there is a high birth rate and a narrow top as it has a low life expectancy due to its lack of healthcare. Another is the UK population pyramid which is more of a barrel-shaped as the population in the UK is ageing and people are having fewer children than before. The top of the barrel is also quite wide as healthcare advances in the UK, the life expectancy also increases. The Brandt line In the 1980s, the Brandt Line was developed as a way of showing how the world was geographically split into relatively richer and poorer nations. Evidence of its survival: - The USA's GDP still far exceeds the rest of the world - The top 10 poorest countries are still are in Sub-Saharan Africa Evidence it doesn’t exist: - Some of the countries below the Brandt line are now in the top 10 largest economies in the world. E.G. Brazil and India. - Since the 1980’s some countries in the global south have experienced rapid economic development. E.G. Asian tigers, HK and Singapore Global inequality Causes Environmental- Climate: Extreme weather hazards such as hurricanes and droughts may influence global inequality as the country needs to address the situation and fix whatever has broken during the catastrophe, leaving the country with no extra money to develop. Social- Healthcare and education: Countries that have invested in education and healthcare are generally more developed. Poverty: A lack of money in a country slows development because it prevents improvements to living standards, education, sanitation and infrastructure. Without these, development in agriculture and industry will be slow and the economy cannot get going. Political and Economic- Corruption: Countries with corrupt or unstable governments develop more slowly, as investment in infrastructure, healthcare and education is inadequate. Instead used for their selfish desires. International relations: Countries that have opened up to global trade have grown faster than countries that have put up barriers to globalisation. Historical- Colonialism: Colonialism means acquiring political control over another country and economically exploiting it. Colonialism has led to the uneven development of some richer nations in comparison to the countries that they colonised. Neo-colonialism: Rich countries today still use their power to dominate past colonial countries. This means that newly independent countries continue to supply cheap raw materials for very little money. Consequences Income inequalities: - There is an imbalance between the rich and the poor - Some countries have lower levels of development and poorer qualities of life compared to other countries - The champagne glass of global income - One way to show the scale of inequality between countries is to use income quintiles - All 230 countries are put into order by their GDP per capita, the USA is at the top - The list is then divided into 5 equal groups of 46 countries with each group being called a quintile The top quintile will contain the richest 46 countries in the world - the top 20% who own 80% of the world's GDP - The bottom two quintiles will be the bottom 40% of countries that together own just 3% of all GDP Rostow’s modernisation theory - He defined five stages that a country must go through to become a fully developed nation: - Traditional society: most people work in agriculture and do not produce much extra food to be sold for cash. This is a ‘substance community’ - Preconditions to take off: There is a shift from farming to manufacturing. Trade increases profits, which are invested in new industries and infrastructure. Agriculture produces cash crops. - Take-off: growth is rapid. Investments and technology create manufacturing industries. Take-off requires investments from profits earned from overseas.  - Drive to maturity: A period of growth where technology is used throughout the economy. Industries produce consumer goods. - Age of high mass consumption: A period of comfort and luxury as customers enjoy a wide range of goods and services. Societies choose how to spend their wealth; either on the military, strength education or welfare. Or on luxuries for the wealthy - Rostow's model became the modernisation theory because he thought it was a way to ‘modernise’. All that countries had to do was follow his model. Criticisms - It was Eurocentric as it was based on European countries only and overlooked other ways a country could develop. - Many European countries have now reached the final stage of Rostow's model, and maybe more stages of development. - Countries further down the development path could reach further stages more quickly. - It assumes all countries start with the same amount of resources, population and opportunities Franks dependency theory - He argued that the model is based on a chain of exploitation - Historical trade/colonialism made countries poor. Developed countries had become rich at the expense of developing countries by exploiting their natural resources - He split the world's countries into the core and their peripheries - Core-developed countries which processed raw materials to make high-value goods - Periphery - developing countries which export raw materials to the core for low value and depend on the core for their market Criticisms - countries that were not colonised still were poor e.g. Ethiopia whereas some former colonies are now developed e.g. Singapore - Countries that followed the socialist model mostly remanded poor - Some poor countries have successfully developed and moved to the core  - Rich countries today (neo-colonialism) may be positive e.g. aid India India is in south-central Asia and borders Pakistan, Nepal, China, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It is in the northern hemisphere and has a coastline to the Indian Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. India is the 7th largest land area in the world - 3.3 million km2 India has a 7500 km long coastline Why has globalisation in India grown so rapidly? Companies want to produce products in the cheapest places. Countries like India gain because they have cheap and plentiful labour. Trade increases as goods are made and sold to the world's wealthier countries. FDI in India has also grown. Lots of foreign companies have invested in India’s IT and research and development. Especially when the programme of economic liberalisation began. Economic liberalisation of India: - India became a market economy after economic liberalisation - Customers known as the market and individual companies were able to decide - What people will buy based on demands - Where goods can be made much more cheaply - Where investments in products will make made most profit Consequences of government supporting economic liberalisation your paragraph - Encourages FDI  - Produces import tariffs - Reduces control on how much money is bought in and out of the country - Reduces taxes, specifically on company profits What are the station impacts of economic growth in India? A major change in India has been rural-urban migration as people go in search of jobs and a better quality of life. In the 1990s 25% of India's population was urban this has increased to 34% by 2019 This has led to many social changes for example; - Social Customs - The caste system is not so rigid - The population changed due to later marriage and a falling birth rate - Improvements to living standards Has decreased from 30 births per 1,000 people in 1991 to 17.5 per 1000 people in 2021. This is a good change as people are having fewer children due to better healthcare systems and fewer infant deaths in India. Life expectancy has increased from 59.7 years in 1991 to 70 years and 2019 this has happened because healthcare and India has improved over the last 28 years and medicine is more accessible to people. The average number of years in school has increased from 2.4 years and 1991 to 12 years in 2014. This is because India has developed more. India has invested in schools being more accessible to children even becoming free and mandatory. The life expectancy in India has increased from 1991 to 2021 and the factor which contributed to that was economic growth as India's economy has grown the life expectancy has gotten better because there was more development in medicine and healthcare making hospitals more accessible to people and common diseases not being a problem due to an advanced and medication which came from economic growth in India. Social implications of economic growth in India: Age + gender implication - Only ⅓ of working-aged women in India have jobs compared with ⅔ in Brazil - The generally low status of women in Indian society remains a disappointing aspect of life and a hindrance to the development Demographic and population change - The birth rate has fallen from 45 per 1000 people in 1951 - 61, to 17.5 per 1000 people today. - The infant mortality rate has fallen from 129 per 1000 people in the 1970s to 39.6 per 1000 live births today due to increased access to safe drinking water supplies and a rapid expansion of hospitals in rural areas. Urbanisation - And increasing proportion of India's population is living in urban areas (when most of the better paid jobs are located) - The country's town and cities are growing because of a combination of real urban migration and natural population increase. Regional - GDP per capita in the US dollar PPP varies greatly between Indian states. The mean for India is US $ 6907. Goa, the highest rank state is US dollar 25,044 (above the mean) whereas bihar the lowest rank state is US $ 2395 (below the mean) Winners/positive impacts: - More well paid jobs in urban areas - More than 250 million middle class people by 2025 - There will be better employment opportunities - TNCs can pay less for workers - India’s government allowed TNCs to set factories up - For TNCs, India’s minimum wage is 87% lower than thee UK - Many clothing companies don’t pay that much Losers/negative impacts - Leaves billions who aren't well paid for their jobs - Worker get paid under minimum wage - There is an abundance of people willing to work who don’t already don’t get paid so competition is higher - In textile jobs there are no equal pay agreements - Many sweatshops discriminate against older women who have returned after having children The multiplier effect As people migrate to cities for work, they earn higher salaries which they spend on housing and services. This creates more jobs in itself. Over time this can affect the whole region, which will develop as a core region. Even though India has developed and living standards are better. Inequality still remains. - Economic growth is still in cities and urban areas - People make money which they spend on housing and services Core and periphery Maharashtra - an urban core - Largest state GDPin India - India’s richest region - Known as the economic powerhouse of the country - Contains india’s largest city (Mumbai) Economic growth came from: - Service industry - banking, IT, call centers - Manufacturing - clothing (50% of workers), food processing, steel and engineering - Second largest port in the country - construction industry - Entertainment - Bollywood Bihar - the rural periphery - Far away from cities so receives little investments - 86% of its population are rural, sustenance farmers - Half of its households earn less than 8p a day - Rising temperatures fie to climate change are putting farmers in Bihar further at risk - Only 59% of its population has electricity, therefore no investments - Bihar is a traditional caste based society, higher caste are literate and lower caste are generally illiterate - People rarely marry out of their caste so are locked in poverty - Only ⅓ of children complete primary - Only 47% literacy rate - Gender inequality - only 33% literacy rate for women (Bihar only) - People rarely own land and are low wage labourers The cycle of poverty Environmental impacts of economic growth Deforestation/desertification - Deforestation and raising have been causing and erosion landslides on average India station about 6,000 million tons of topsoil annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees - During a period of 25 years (1951 - 1970) India lost 4.1 million hectares of forest area - Biodiversity and landed degradation that's more landed needed for food cities and Industries Air pollution - Air pollution reduces life expectancy by 3.2 years for the million Indians who live in the cities. Air pollution is the fifth biggest cause of death in India. - Air pollution caused by old public transport, urban traffic, and emissions from coal powered stations. This all contributed to using creating greenhouse gases - 13 of the World top 20 polluted cities are in India. Delhi topped the list with air pollution of 153 micrograms per cubic meter (compared to London, 16 micrograms per cubic meter) The pollution affects productivity of labour and many workers suffering from heart and lung cancer and chronic bronchitis Water pollution - The number of rivers defined as ‘polluted’ in India grew from 121 to 275 between 2010 and 2015. The Ganges and Yamuna are ranked in the top 10 most polluted in the world. - Main cause for river pollution is high levels of sewage from cities. The other causes are from industrial waste and agricultural runoff. Less than ⅓ of sewage is treated, the rest flows straight into rivers. Climate change - India is the third largest emitter of CO2 after China and the USA. The main reason is the heavy reliance on coal as a source of energy. (Has the largest coal deposit)