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2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES AIMS This syllabus enables students to: 1 acquire knowledge and skills to describe, explain and analyse geographical phenomena and processes that occur in Singapore and beyond 2 examine select...

2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES AIMS This syllabus enables students to: 1 acquire knowledge and skills to describe, explain and analyse geographical phenomena and processes that occur in Singapore and beyond 2 examine selected geographical phenomena and processes by analysing data 3 be aware of different value orientations towards the environment, which influence people’s actions 4 be imbibed with a sense of responsibility towards the environment; and 5 be provided with opportunities to discuss solutions and take actions to achieve a more sustainable world. LEARNING OUTCOMES Knowledge and Understanding This syllabus develops students with the knowledge and understanding of: geographical phenomena and processes that occur in Singapore and beyond geographical concepts associated with selected natural and human phenomena geographical methods of inquiry to investigate selected natural and human phenomena and processes; and sustainable development and approaches that enhance the sustainability of our world at various scales. Skills This syllabus seeks to equip students with skills to: analyse geographical data interpret geographical data to recognise patterns and trends, and suggest relationships pose relevant geographical questions to learn about natural and human phenomena and processes apply selected geographical concepts and methods to investigate natural and human phenomena and processes; and evaluate geographical information to make reasoned decisions. Values and Attitudes This syllabus seeks to nurture in students: an awareness of different value orientations towards the environment, which influence people’s actions; and a sense of responsibility towards the environment, and a desire to contribute towards building a sustainable future. 4  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AO1: Knowledge with Understanding Candidates should be able to construct responses based on understanding of theories, generalisations, models and concepts. This will be demonstrated by the ability to: (a) identify, describe or explain theories, generalisations, models, concepts and methods (b) classify environments, events, methods, objects, people, processes and places into categories according to their common features (c) explain how events, objects and processes cause changes to environments, people and places. AO2: Skills and Analysis Candidates should be able to apply their understanding to break down information into its component parts or to carry out an investigation. This will be demonstrated by the ability to: (a) support conclusions using relevant material from information provided (b) identify, describe or compare characteristics, relationships, patterns and trends shown in graphs, maps, photographs, diagrams, tables and texts (c) compare similarities and differences between environments, events, methods, objects, people, processes and places (d) describe or explain how to collect, process, interpret and present quantitative and qualitative data (e) adapt methods to manage risks, limitations and achieve investigation objectives. AO3: Judgement and Decision-Making Candidates should be able to use defined criteria and standards to evaluate methods, outcomes and proposals. This will be demonstrated by the ability to: (a) arrive at an overall evaluation by considering constraints and opportunities in the environment, people’s varying needs, attitudes and beliefs, or the importance of sustainable development (b) evaluate the reliability and validity of investigation findings. Assessment Specification Grid The table below shows the approximate weighting of the Assessment Objectives in the syllabus. Assessment Objectives Weighting for Paper 1 Weighting for Paper 2 AO1: Knowledge with Understanding 15% 15% AO2: Skills and Analysis 20% 20% AO3: Judgement and Decision-Making 15% 15% Total 50% 50% 5  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT Paper 1 Candidates answer three compulsory structured questions. 1h 45min Question 1*: Cluster 1 – Geography in Everyday Life (Topic 1.3) (20 marks) Question 2: Cluster 2 – Tourism (15 marks) 50 marks Question 3: Cluster 3 – Climate (15 marks) 50% Each structured question will consist of no more than 9 sub-parts. Candidates will be required to answer one 9-mark question testing AO3 in either Question 2 or Question 3. This question will be marked using generic level descriptors. All other questions in this paper will be point-marked. * Question 1 is on fieldwork. The fieldwork context may or may not be based on any of the clusters in the syllabus. Paper 2 Candidates answer three compulsory structured questions. 1h 45min Question 1: Cluster 1 – Geography in Everyday Life (Topics 1.1 and 1.2) (15 marks) 50 marks Question 2: Cluster 4 – Tectonics (15 marks) Question 3: Cluster 5 – Singapore (20 marks) 50% Each structured question will consist of no more than 9 sub-parts. Candidates will be required to answer one 9-mark question testing AO3 in either Question 2 or Question 3. This question will be marked using generic level descriptors. All other questions in this paper will be point-marked. USE OF CALCULATORS An approved calculator may be used in both papers. 6  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS SYLLABUS FRAMEWORK AND OUTLINE The O-Level Geography syllabus is organised by topics that are grouped according to clusters to achieve a balance between breadth and depth of content coverage. A key feature is the close examination of students’ everyday experiences using geographical concepts and methods in the Geography in Everyday Life Cluster. This would elevate the relevance and applicability of Geography learning. Additionally, this would enable students to learn new concepts and skills in familiar environments, before applying them to understand different contexts featured in the subsequent clusters. Students shall undertake an extended fieldwork (10 weeks) and apply their classroom learning to carry out an in-depth study of any content area featured in the syllabus. Content Overview This syllabus is divided into five clusters of three topics. Cluster 1: Geography in Everyday Life Cluster 4: Tectonics Topic 1.1 – Thinking Geographically Topic 4.1 – Plate Tectonics Topic 1.2 – Sustainable Development Topic 4.2 – Earthquakes and Volcanoes Topic 1.3 – Geographical Methods Topic 4.3 – Disaster Risk Management Cluster 2: Tourism Cluster 5: Singapore Topic 2.1 – Tourism Activity Topic 5.1 – Small Island City-State Topic 2.2 – Tourism Development Topic 5.2 – Opportunities and Challenges Topic 2.3 – Sustainable Tourism Development Topic 5.3 – Sustainable and Resilient Singapore Cluster 3: Climate Extended Fieldwork (10 weeks) Topic 3.1 – Weather and Climate Topic 3.2 – Climate Change Topic 3.3 – Climate Action 7  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS SYLLABUS CONTENT Cluster 1: Geography in Everyday Life Geography is more than a world knowledge. Geographers make sense of their everyday lives and the world around them by viewing it through a ‘geographical lens’ or concept. Concepts introduce the diversity of ways to think geographically and investigate using geographical methods, the connections and relationships between places and spaces. Learning Geography is to engage mentally with questions about people, society, environment, and the planet. Geographers studying sustainable development explore how people attach values to the environment and consider people’s varied responses to sustainability challenges in context. TOPIC 1.1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY About this Topic Notwithstanding the diversity of practices among geographers worldwide, disciplinary concepts are commonly used by geography teachers to support students in classifying and establishing their understanding of concepts and phenomena. These disciplinary concepts exemplify how geographers conduct research, providing a meaningful structure that helps students to organise conceptual and factual knowledge. Equipped with the ability to think geographically would make students’ knowledge powerful, enriching their civic participation and enabling them to contribute productively in cross-disciplinary teams. Key Questions Content 1 What is the relationship 1 Relationship between people and nature between people and (a) local communities and nearby nature areas are dependent upon nature in their each other neighbourhoods? (b) local communities and nearby nature areas mutually affect each other 2 Benefits enjoyed by people and nature (a) nature areas lower air temperatures, remove pollutants and provide space for recreation (b) community activities promote the importance of environmental protection 3 Disadvantages to people and nature (a) wildlife from nearby nature areas may harm people and environmental protection limits development (b) visitors to nature areas cause soil erosion, damage vegetation, worsen pollution and disturb wildlife 2 How do people acquire a 1 Sense of place sense of place in their (a) people associate importance, meanings and memories with specific neighbourhoods? locations in their neighbourhoods (b) people’s experiences with natural and built environments, and interaction with others at these locations 2 Acquiring a sense of place (a) individuals repeatedly encounter people and objects along familiar paths or roads during regular travel (b) individuals experience significant or memorable events at local landmarks and gathering places 3 Representing a sense of place (a) individuals and organisations use different forms and types of media to express people’s sense of place (b) individuals’ sense of place could be enhanced or contradicted by these different representations 8  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 What is the relationship 1 Regions between locations in a (a) areas with similar physical and/or human characteristics or are neighbourhood? known for something (b) spheres of influence of services, events and objects on other locations in the area 2 Spatial patterns (a) non-random arrangement of services, events and objects in an area (b) services, events and objects arranged in recognisable shapes, geometry, clusters or at regular intervals 3 Spatial associations (a) tendency of a pair of services, events and objects to locate near each other (b) tendency suggests a connection between a service, event or object and another service, event or object 4 How are neighbourhoods 1 Spatial scales in Singapore organised in Singapore? (a) more than 20 towns spread across the country, catering to different lifestyles (b) each town has a town centre, serving as commercial and social hubs for residents living in its neighbourhoods 2 Spatial hierarchies in Singapore (a) nested areas of different sizes beginning with a single residential unit (b) clusters of residential units form a precinct, which in turn forms neighbourhoods that combine into a town 3 Town planning in Singapore (a) serve residents and provide for nature at distinct levels of the precinct, neighbourhood and town (b) create connections and synergies across precincts, neighbourhoods and towns 9  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 1.2: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT About this Topic The key to sustainable development is to achieve a balance between the exploitation of natural resources for economic and social development and conserving ecosystem services that are critical to people’s livelihoods and well-being. Disasters destroy lives, undoing many years of effort in protecting natural environments and improving economic and social conditions. Therefore putting emphasis on disaster risk reduction is central to sustainable development. Key Questions Content 1 What are sustainable 1 Sustainable development urban neighbourhoods? (a) meet the needs of the present population by achieving high standards of living for all (b) ensure the ability of future generations to meet their own needs 2 Economic and social sustainability in urban neighbourhoods (a) high enough population density to support local businesses, and keep transport and infrastructure costs low (b) small population size to enable regular interaction among residents and to discuss decisions affecting the neighbourhood 3 Environmental sustainability in urban neighbourhoods (a) ample protection for nature and facilities that support waste minimisation and recycling (b) adopts energy and water efficient design approaches for buildings and landscapes 2 What ecosystem services 1 Urban neighbourhoods as ecosystems are found in urban (a) ecosystems consist of living communities and the non-living neighbourhoods? environment interacting with one another (b) aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in neighbourhoods including ponds, lakes, parks and forests 2 Provisioning and regulating services (a) provisioning services available in neighbourhoods include fresh water and food (b) regulating services in neighbourhoods include microclimate regulation, flood mitigation, air and water quality control 3 Cultural and supporting services (a) cultural services in neighbourhoods include aesthetics, education and recreation (b) supporting services in neighbourhoods include soil formation, pollination and photosynthesis 10  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 What are common hazards 1 Fire hazards in urban neighbourhoods? (a) fires in neighbourhoods are commonly caused by faulty electrical appliances and wiring, and unattended cooking fires (b) negative consequences of fires include burn injuries, smoke inhalation and property damage 2 Air pollution hazards (a) air pollution in neighbourhoods is commonly caused by burning vegetation and industrial and motor vehicle emissions (b) negative consequences of air pollution include respiratory infections, heart disease and lung cancer 3 Traffic hazards (a) traffic accidents in neighbourhoods are commonly caused by speeding, red-light running and drink driving (b) negative consequences of traffic accidents include serious injury and loss of life 4 How to build sustainable 1 Environmental stewardship urban neighbourhoods? (a) promote volunteerism among neighbourhood residents to share knowledge with others about the importance of healthy ecosystems (b) partner public and private stakeholders in environmental stewardship efforts 2 Disaster risk management (a) reduce neighbourhoods’ exposure to hazards and the vulnerability of people and properties to hazards (b) improve residents’ preparedness in responding to hazards and implement monitoring and warning systems 3 Community resilience (a) strengthen relationships among residents and raise their awareness of potential hazards (b) develop residents’ ability to organise themselves and equip themselves with resources to resist, adapt and recover from a disaster 11  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 1.3: GEOGRAPHICAL METHODS About this Topic Geographical inquiry is integral to school geography and provides the closest proximate to the practice of geographers. It is learning that takes place outside the classroom and occurs in a real-world context. It is a systematic approach to investigating geographical phenomena and their related issues, by applying relevant geographical concepts and skills. At the end of their inquiry, students should reflect on the learning process by evaluating the reliability of the data collected, and the validity of their conclusion or findings. Key Questions Content 1 How to design fieldwork? 1 Research questions and hypotheses (a) identify a topic or thesis from textbooks, news articles and websites (b) craft a question that outlines a specific scope and a measurable hypothesis about one or two variables 2 Data collection sequence through primary and/or secondary sources (a) collect quantitative data then design qualitative data collection to examine patterns and trends (b) collect qualitative data then design quantitative data collection to verify observations 3 Limitations and risks (a) adjust research aim, study area, sample size and timeframe according to available resources (b) implement measures to avoid harming oneself, other people and nature 2 How to collect primary 1 Sampling data? (a) use non-probability sampling methods including convenience and quota sampling (b) use probability sampling methods including simple random sampling and stratified random sampling 2 Closed-ended questionnaire surveys (a) create pre-defined responses to questions that are limited to short phrases, single words or numbers (b) use rating scales to guide responses including the Likert scale, frequency scale and ranking scale 3 Mental maps (a) visualise experiences by drawing features and adding labels onto the base map of a study area (b) conduct semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions exploring features and labels added to the map 12  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 How to process and 1 Closed-ended questionnaire surveys analyse data? (a) interpret responses using measures of frequency including counts and percentages (b) interpret responses using measures of central tendency including mean, mode and median 2 Mental maps (a) analyse how well maps represent reality, and how features and labels are drawn or added (b) examine how memories of experiences are represented on maps and described during semi-structured interviews 3 Relationships and patterns (a) visualise positive and negative correlations using scatter plots and best-fit lines (b) identify recognisable geometric shapes, clusters and repetition 4 How to present findings? 1 Maps (a) represent spatial information using dots, lines and polygons (b) provide title, date, orientation, scale, legend, author and source(s) on maps 2 Graphs (a) use bar graphs and pie charts to show distributions (b) use line graphs to show trends and relationships between two variables 3 Photographs and texts (a) use satellite and aerial images to display spatial information (b) use colour-coded quotations and word clouds to represent qualitative analyses 13  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Cluster 2: Tourism Tourism is a complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon that is best understood as a system. Tourism activity consists of flows of people and goods and services between places. These flows are interdependent, existing within a wider system. Tourism benefits and harms people and nature across different scales. As places are unique, sustainable tourism development cannot be achieved using a one-size-fits-all approach. Strategies to benefit from tourism and solutions to address problems caused by tourism would need to be adapted to suit different contexts. TOPIC 2.1: TOURISM ACTIVITY About this Topic The components of the tourism system span the globe, connecting communities and economies from different parts of the world. Its efficient functioning depends on the maintenance of the relationship between tourist generating and tourist destination regions. Tourist arrivals was about 25 million in 1950. About 60 years later, it exceeded 1 billion as the motivation and ability of individuals to travel increased. The tourism boom resulted in the transformation of many places, as they evolve as tourist destination regions, attracting tourists with different personality characteristics at different stages of their life cycle. Key Questions Content 1 What is a tourism system? 1 Components of the tourism system (a) key components include tourist generating regions, tourist destination regions and transit routes (b) volume and direction of travel between regions are influenced by transit routes 2 Relationship between tourist generating and destination regions (a) push factors at tourist generating regions and pull factors at tourist destination regions (b) interdependence of tourists, businesses and organisations at tourist generating and destination regions 3 Interactions between tourism and the environment (a) tourism activity interacts with nature, communities and economies in their local environment and beyond (b) changes to one part of the tourism system affect the local and wider environment, and vice versa 2 What led to the growth of 1 Motivation to travel tourism? (a) individuals seeking relaxation, self-fulfilment and unique travel experiences (b) made possible by growth in individuals’ incomes 2 Ability to travel (a) growth in disposable incomes and increased leisure time due to paid vacation. (b) facilitated by business innovations, lower transport costs and accommodation costs 3 Mobility in travel (a) expansion of public transport services and infrastructure, and new modes of air, land and sea travel (b) increased private car ownership improving travel convenience to nearby locations 14  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 How do tourist destination 1 Exploration and involvement stages regions develop over time? (a) small number of tourists undertaking individual and irregular travel to visit the destination’s primary attractions (b) locals offer tourist services, advertising the destination, requesting more public tourist amenities and facilities 2 Development and consolidation stages (a) increase in tourist numbers with destinations having more man-made attractions, advertisements and foreign labour (b) growth in tourist numbers slow and tourists outnumber locals resulting in a tourism dependent economy 3 Stagnation and decline or rejuvenation stages (a) tourist numbers peak as a destination’s carrying capacity is reached, resulting in negative impacts (b) tourist numbers decline as a destination loses its tourist appeal or is rejuvenated with new cultural or man-made attractions 4 How do different 1 Spectrum of personality characteristics personality characteristics (a) Dependables and Venturers, with small proportion of tourists on both of tourists affect tourist extreme ends destination regions? (b) majority of tourists in the middle of the spectrum, with a mixture of both extremes 2 Features of personality characteristics (a) Dependables spend cautiously, guided by authoritative figures, prefer structure in daily living and the company of friends and family (b) Venturers spend readily, guided by personal judgement, prefer different activities and being alone 3 Personality characteristics influence travel patterns (a) different types of tourist destination regions appeal to tourists with different personality characteristics (b) tourists who are more Venturer types influence travel decisions of those who are more Dependable types 15  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 2.2: TOURISM DEVELOPMENT About this Topic Tourism is expected to continue growing, characterised by more diverse travel experiences offered by a larger variety of tourism operators. Thus, the potential of tourism contributing to environmental protection, economic and social development is widely recognised. It is equally important to recognise that this potential cannot be fulfilled without paying close attention to the negative, and in some cases irreversible, impacts of tourism. Left unattended, the negative impacts of tourism could negate all the benefits that it has brought to tourism destination regions. Key Questions Content 1 What are the trends in 1 Globalisation and tourism tourism? (a) continued expansion in international tourist arrivals (b) tourism become increasingly diverse in tourist generating and destination regions 2 Diversity in tourism demand (a) growing popularity of lesser-known destinations that were not previously as popular or were less accessible (b) emergence of new experiences including adventure, heritage, sports and health tourism 3 Diversity in tourism supply (a) small specialist operators adding to services of mass market tour operators (b) tourism marketing changing from traditional print and broadcast media to new online media 2 How does tourism affect 1 Economic impact in the tourism system the economies of places? (a) tourist generating and destination regions operate interdependently in the tourism system (b) tourism’s impact on the economy is experienced more significantly at tourist destination regions 2 Positive economic impact (a) increased employment in the formal and informal tourism sectors at tourist generating and destination regions (b) higher income generated from tourists’ spending on consumer goods and services especially at tourist destination regions 3 Negative economic impact (a) economic leakages resulting in less tourism revenue (b) overdependence on tourism increasing tourist destination regions’ vulnerability to a sudden fall in tourist numbers 16  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 How does tourism affect 1 Social impact in the tourism system society of places? (a) tourists and local communities at tourist destination regions mutually affect each other (b) outcomes are shaped by the nature of interaction between tourists and local communities 2 Positive social impact (a) increased interest among tourists and local communities in preserving traditional cultural practices and art forms (b) environmental protection at tourist destination regions enhances cultural ecosystem services 3 Negative social impact (a) commodification of traditional cultural practices and art forms resulting in loss of values and conflict among locals (b) negative attitudes of local communities towards tourists including cultural clashes and tourists as victims of crime 4 How does tourism affect 1 Environmental impact in the tourism system the environment of places? (a) natural environments provide important provisioning and regulating ecosystem services (b) environmental degradation due to tourism impacts tourist destination regions significantly 2 Positive environmental impact (a) conservation of natural environments and preservation of biodiversity to maintain natural attractions (b) restoration of degraded aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems to create new natural attractions 3 Negative environmental impact (a) pollution caused by greenhouse gas emissions, inadequate sewage facilities and improper waste disposal (b) construction of facilities and attractions encroaches on nature, depletes natural resources and threatens wildlife habitats 17  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 2.3: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT About this Topic Sustainable tourism development is necessary for economies, communities and natural environments to continually benefit from tourism. However, it is challenging to balance the different dimensions of sustainable development given the numerous stakeholders who are involved in tourism. The values, attitudes and needs of these stakeholders could differ or be in conflict. There are many approaches to achieving sustainable tourism development, which strive for sustainable tourism production and consumption, ensuring the equitable distribution of tourism benefits. Key Questions Content 1 How does tourism 1 Economic sustainability development help achieve (a) tourism development should continually provide employment sustainable development? opportunities and income growth (b) tourism development should result in more social services that raise local standards of living 2 Social and environmental sustainability (a) tourism development should respect authenticity of local communities, practices and art forms, and contribute to intercultural understanding and tolerance (b) tourism development should maintain essential ecological processes and conserve natural heritage and protect biodiversity 3 Sustainable tourism development (a) achieved when sustainability principles are applied to the economic, social and environmental aspects of tourism development (b) all three dimensions are balanced to guarantee tourism’s long-term sustainability 2 How effective are 1 Governments and international organisations stakeholders in influencing (a) governments establish policies, create plans and enforce regulations sustainable tourism to manage tourism development development? (b) international organisations offer consultancy, financial assistance and raise public awareness 2 Businesses, local communities and tourists (a) businesses and local communities could seek advice from others and participate in decision-making (b) tourists could develop genuine interest in tourist destination regions and interact responsibly 3 Challenges faced by stakeholders (a) stakeholders may have conflicting priorities and needs (b) stakeholders have differing amounts of control over resources and may view how sustainability is measured differently from other stakeholders 18  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 3 How effective are the 1 Ecotourism different approaches in (a) comprises diverse approaches that lie on a spectrum from hard to achieving sustainable soft ecotourism tourism development? (b) limitations include uncertainty over continuity of efforts in conserving nature and involving local communities 2 Community-based tourism (a) innovative small-scale tourism managed by local communities including homestays and agricultural tourism (b) limitations include the potential loss of local culture and competition from larger-scale tourism operators 3 Pro-poor tourism (a) focused on improving livelihoods of the poor through training and access to micro-finance (b) limitations include the inability to significantly reduce poverty as compared to direct investment in social services 4 How might tourism 1 Sustainable tourism production continue to develop (a) when demands on ecosystem services do not exceed the supply of sustainably? resources (b) when different stakeholders adopt a long-term responsible and coordinated approach instead of short-term profit. 2 Sustainable tourism consumption (a) when destination regions manage demand and tourism is consumed responsibly by tourists (b) when policies give local communities primary attention while considering needs of tourists 3 Equitable distribution of tourism benefits (a) effective tourism management to ensure benefits are enjoyed by all (b) minimising negative trade-offs within or between economic, social and environmental dimensions 19  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Cluster 4: Tectonics Plate tectonics theory describes and explains the spatial patterns of tectonic phenomena. It unified different explanations of natural phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanoes, synthesising evidence collected by scientists from different parts of the world. The distribution and occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes is closely associated with tectonic movement. By understanding how disaster risks vary across places, communities living in areas prone to tectonic hazards can better prepare for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which is essential for sustainable development. TOPIC 4.1: PLATE TECTONICS About this Topic Scientists analyse the spatial distribution of natural phenomena, create knowledge based on verifiable observations, and strengthen existing knowledge with new observations. The plate tectonic theory was developed in the 1960s, but its origins have been traced to the ideas of German meteorologist Alfred Wegener who proposed in the 1910s that Earth’s seven continents were once a single landmass, which he called Pangea. Scientists then added new observations of the seafloor, earthquake and volcanic activity to develop the plate tectonic theory, which explains how major landforms are created. Key questions Content 1 What is the plate tectonic 1 Plate tectonic theory theory? (a) Earth’s internal structure consists of core, mantle and crust, including continental and oceanic crusts (b) explains how forces within Earth drive global plate movements 2 Convection currents (a) within the hot softened mantle below the crust (b) being the driving force of overlying plates 3 Slab-pull force (a) gravity-controlled subduction of denser oceanic plate (b) drags the rest of the plate along 2 How does seafloor 1 Seafloor spreading spreading support the (a) magma rises through mid-ocean ridges plate tectonic theory? (b) forms new oceanic crusts 2 Evidence from age of rocks (a) younger rocks are found nearer the crest of mid-ocean ridges (b) rocks get progressively older further away from mid-ocean ridges 3 Evidence from limited sediment accumulation (a) destruction of older oceanic crusts at trenches (b) oceanic crusts younger than continental crusts 3 How does magnetic 1 Magnetic striping striping support the plate (a) normal and reversed polarity tectonic theory? (b) stripes of rock on the seafloor with alternating magnetic properties 2 Evidence from rock composition (a) basalt is a volcanic rock that forms the oceanic crust (b) contains minerals that can be influenced by Earth’s magnetic field 3 Evidence from rock patterns (a) alternating polarity forms a striped pattern (b) not random or isolated occurrences 26  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key questions Content 4 What happens at plate 1 Divergent plate boundaries boundaries when tectonic (a) plates move away from each other plates move? (b) results in mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands, rift systems and earthquakes 2 Convergent plate boundaries (a) plates move towards each other (b) results in fold mountains, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches and earthquakes 3 Transform plate boundaries (a) plates slide past each other (b) results in faults and earthquakes 27  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 4.2: EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES About this Topic Plate movements resulting from Earth’s internal processes explain why some locations in the world are prone to experiencing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Large-scale tectonic hazards could pose considerable danger to people living in hazard-prone areas, causing widespread destruction that results in the loss of lives and massive damage to property. Tectonic hazards can also affect the natural environment, destroying ecosystems, killing plants and animals. However, there are many advantages to living near volcanoes, which resilient communities can benefit from. Key questions Content 1 How do tectonic 1 Tectonic processes of earthquakes processes affect the (a) stress builds up and exceeds strength of the fault magnitude of (b) sudden release of seismic waves, radiating energy from the focus earthquakes? 2 Magnitude of earthquakes (a) affected by amount of energy released through ground movement (b) recorded using seismometers 3 Measuring earthquakes (a) Richter scale measures local magnitude of earthquakes (b) Moment Magnitude scale measures larger earthquakes more reliably 2 How do tectonic 1 Tectonic processes of volcanic eruptions processes affect the (a) magma consisting of dissolved gases is less dense magnitude of volcanic (b) forces its way upward and breaks through weak areas in the Earth’s eruptions? crust 2 Magnitude of volcanic eruptions (a) determined by amount of dissolved gases and magma viscosity (b) stratovolcanoes erupt violently and shield volcanoes emit magma gently 3 Measuring volcanic eruptions (a) Volcanic Explosivity Index measures relative explosivity of historic eruptions (b) considers the volume of ejected materials, height of eruption cloud and duration of the eruption 3 How might distribution of 1 Distribution of earthquakes earthquakes and (a) along all plate boundaries volcanoes influence the (b) largest concentration at the Pacific Ring of Fire location of tectonic hazards? 2 Distribution of volcanoes (a) located near convergent and divergent plate boundaries (b) hot spot volcanoes are found away from plate boundaries 3 Distribution of tectonic hazards (a) most located near plate boundaries, and near earthquakes and volcanoes (b) tsunamis and volcanic ash may spread beyond geographic region 28  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key questions Content 4 How might tectonic 1 Earthquake hazards and their impacts hazards affect the natural (a) hazards include ground shaking, soil liquefaction, landslides and and human systems? tsunamis (b) impacts include destroying ecosystems, properties and infrastructure, disrupting services, and causing injury and loss of life 2 Volcanic eruption hazards and their impacts (a) hazards include tephra, volcanic gases, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars and volcanic landslides (b) impacts include destroying ecosystems, properties and infrastructure, disrupting services, and threatening public health and causing injury and loss of life 3 Benefits of volcanic eruptions and living near volcanoes (a) volcanic eruption provides fertile soil for farming after volcanic materials are broken down and weathered, and makes available valuable minerals and building materials (b) living near volcanoes allows harnessing of geothermal energy and tourism activities 29  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS TOPIC 4.3: DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT About this Topic Earthquake and volcanic eruption disaster risks vary greatly from place to place depending on both physical and human factors. For countries that are prone to tectonic hazards, sustainable development requires effective disaster risk management involving all stakeholders. Analysing the factors influencing disaster risks is important to reducing disaster risks successfully. Ultimately, it is vital for communities to continually build their resilience, and for governments to sustain their efforts in enhancing disaster response and recovery capabilities. Key Questions Content 1 How does disaster risk 1 Disaster risk management management help achieve (a) prevent, reduce and manage disaster risks thus strengthening sustainable development? resilience (b) apply plans and actions which are developed into various strategies by communities 2 Disaster risk and loss (a) brings about serious economic, social and environmental consequences (b) costly for individuals and countries, and may hinder development 3 Reducing disaster risks (a) important for disaster-prone developing countries (b) cost-effective investment in preventing future losses, thus contributing to sustainable development 2 Why do disaster risks 1 Tectonic disaster risk related to earthquakes and (a) interaction between tectonic hazards, and vulnerability and exposure volcanic eruptions vary to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions across places? (b) results in potential loss of human lives and damage to properties 2 Factors influencing disaster risks related to earthquakes (a) nature of hazards including duration and time of shaking (b) vulnerable conditions including quality of building design and construction, soil and rock properties, and exposure including population density and distance from epicentre 3 Factors influencing disaster risks related to volcanic eruptions (a) nature of hazards including chemical composition of magma (b) vulnerable conditions including availability of surface and ground water facilitating the development of lahars, prevailing wind conditions affecting distribution of tephra, and exposure including presence of human settlements 3 How effective are the 1 Strengthening resilience strategies in building (a) important for communities living in hazard-prone zones communities’ resilience to (b) to resist, adapt and recover from impacts of disasters in a timely and earthquakes and volcanic efficient manner eruptions? 2 Strategies in building community resilience (a) reducing exposure including land use planning, reducing vulnerability including hazard-resistant building designs, and monitoring and warning systems (b) increasing preparedness for response and recovery 3 Challenges in building community resilience (a) extent of community’s resources (b) capability of community to organise itself for disasters 30  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Key Questions Content 4 How effective are the 1 Disaster management disaster management (a) organisation, planning and application of strategies strategies after an (b) responding to and recovering from disasters earthquake or a volcanic eruption? 2 Disaster management strategies (a) disaster response includes search and rescue efforts, timely evacuation, and provision of basic social and psychosocial services to affected communities (b) disaster recovery includes restoring and improving facilities and living conditions of affected communities 3 Challenges in disaster management (a) lack of domestic resources, including technological and financial resources (b) engaging relevant stakeholders to collaborate and integrate disaster management strategies into their practices 31  2279 GEOGRAPHY GCE ORDINARY LEVEL SYLLABUS Appendix A Level Marks Generic Level Descriptors for 9-mark AO3 Questions 3 7–9 Develops arguments that support both sides of the discussion clearly, using a range of points with good elaboration. Examples used demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the issue or phenomenon. Evaluation is derived from a well- reasoned consideration of the arguments. 2 4–6 Develops arguments that support one side of the discussion well, using one or two points with some elaboration. Example(s) used demonstrate a good understanding of the issue or phenomenon. Evaluation is well supported by arguments. 1 1–3 Arguments are unclear with limited description or may be listed. No examples provided or examples are generic, demonstrating a basic understanding of the issue or phenomenon. Evaluation is simple, missing or unclear. 0 0 No creditworthy response. 37