General Anatomy and Physiology Unit III Lecture Outline PDF

**General Anatomy and Physiology** **Unit III** **Nervous System; Senses** **[Nervous Tissue]** Neurology: (define) study of the nervous system **[Functions of the Nervous System:]** 1\. Sensory Function: detect stimuli 2\. Integration: analyze sensory info and decide what to do 3\. Motor fu...

**General Anatomy and Physiology** **Unit III** **Nervous System; Senses** **[Nervous Tissue]** Neurology: (define) study of the nervous system **[Functions of the Nervous System:]** 1\. Sensory Function: detect stimuli 2\. Integration: analyze sensory info and decide what to do 3\. Motor function: react to sensory info with movement or gland secretion **[Nervous Tissue: (]**Composed of neurons and neuroglia) 1\. Neurons (nerve cells): - Produce nerve impulses (also called action potential). - cell body - Main part of the neuron, contains nucleus and organelles - dendrites - Branches that receive information and carry nerve impulses **[to]** the cell body - axon - Usually a single branch which carries a nerve impulse **[away]** from the cell body and to the next neuron, muscle, or gland. - [Functional Classification of Neurons] - Sensory Neurons (also called:afferent neurons) - Carry sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS) - Motor Neurons (also called: efferent neurons) - Carries information from the CNS to muscles or glands\_. - Interneurons (also called: association neurons) - Connect sensory to motor neurons - Responsible for integration. 2\. Neuroglia: - Makes up roughly ½ the volume of the Central Nervous System. - Smaller and more numerous than neurons - Function: - Support, nourish and protect nerve cells - [Types of Neuroglia:] - Support neurons. Astrocytes contain microfilaments that give them a lot of strength which enable them to support neurons. - Make up the blood-brain barrier(BBB). - Protects the brain by preventing harmful substances such as bacteria or chemicals in the blood from passing through to the brain. - Maintain appropriate chemical balance. - May be involved in learning and memory by influencing the formation of neural. - Form myelin sheaths in the Central Nervous System. - Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, trash, ect. - Form cerebrospinal fluid. - Form myelin sheaths. - Support neurons and regulate exchanges. **[Myelin Sheath:]** \*Composed of lipids and proteins. \*Produced by schwann cells (in PNS) and oligodendrocytes (in CNS). \*Insulates an axon and increases the speed of a nerve impulse (conduction). \*Gaps in myelin sheath are called *Nodes of Ranvier*: Nerve impulse jumps from one node to the next which speeds up the nerve impulse. **[Collections of Nerve Tissue:]** Nerve: - Cranial Nerves: - Connect brain to periphery - Spinal Nerves - Connect spinal cord periphery Nerves are surrounded by 3 layers of connective tissue: 1. endoneurium (inner layer) 2. perineurium(middle layer) 3. epineurium(outer layer) Most of the cell bodies are found in the CNS. Ganglion: A collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS. **[Tracts]** (define): - Ascending tracts: - Descending tracts: - nucleus: Collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS. **[Gray and White Matter:]** - white matter: Myelinated - gray matter: Unmyelinated **[Nervous System Divisions:]** 1\. Central Nervous System (CNS) 2\. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) [Central Nervous System:] Components: 1. brain 2. spinal cord Functions: Integration - Analyzes sensory information - Generates thoughts and emotions - Stores memories - Controls muscles and glands. [Peripheral Nervous System: (PNS)] Components: 1\. nerves 2\. ganglia 3. sensory receptors Functions: - Sensory - Collects impulses using senses and carries them **[to]** the CNS. - Motor - Carries a response away from the CNS to muscles or glands. **[Subdivisions of the PNS:]** 1\. Somatic Nervous System: - Includes: - sensory neurons in skin, limbs and sense organs - Involuntary control - motor to skeletal muscles only - Voluntary control 2\. Autonomic Nervous System - involuntary control. - Includes: - sensory and motor neurons for organs, cardiac and smooth muscle and glands - Sympathetic Division - "Fight of flight responses" , under stress - Parasympathetic Division - \"rest & digest\" responses 3\. Enteric Nervous System - involuntary control. - Controls the GI tract. **[Nerve Impulses (Also called:]action potential):** [At Rest/Polarization:] There is a difference in charge created by ions that exists across a neuron's cell membrane at rest. This difference MUST be maintained to create a nerve impulse. - Outside the cell - Positive charge - More Na+ (sodium) - Inside the cell - Negative charge - More K+ (potassium) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **To initiate depolarization, a stimulus MUST be applied to the neuron such as touch (Meissner's Corpuscle) pressure (Pacinian Corpuscle), sound, smell, taste, etc.** [Action Potential (nerve impulse)] 1\. Threshold Stimulus: - Causes membrane to reach threshold - Different neurons have different thresholds - *Need to reach the threshold in order for a nerve impulse to be created* - *This is an All or None principle; the threshold is either reached or not* 2\. Depolarization (when the inside of the cell becomes positive -- (flips) - Charges on the membrane reverse (inside becomes positive) - This creates an action potential (nerve impulse) - This is caused by the opening of Na+ channels which allows Na+ to move quickly *into* the cell - When a neuron depolarizes, the nerve impulse is created and passed along 3\. Repolarization - Returning the membrane charges back to normal (inside returns to negative) - Caused by Na+ channels closing and K+ channels opening (K+ now moves *out* of the cell) - Repolarization happens very quickly 4\. K+ channels then close, and a pump moves the ions back to where they started. Refractory Period: - Recovery time needed before another action potential can be generated. **[The Synapse:]** Synapse: Place where 2 neurons meet, but they don't connect. - presynaptic: Neuron sending the impulse - postsynaptic: Neuron receiving the impulse [Crossing the Synapse:] Because a nerve impulse cannot jump across the synapse, the presynaptic neuron will produce and release a chemical called a neurotransmitter that can cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. [Clinical Significance:] - Neurotransmitter imbalances can result in various illnesses. - Examples: schizophrenia, Attention deficit disorders, sleep disorders, depression, ect - Many drugs, both legal and illegal affect synapses. - Examples: amphetamines, cocaine, hallucinogens **[Nervous System Disorders:]** [Neuron damage] - In PNS, there is limited ability to repair damage - In CNS, no repairs happen. [Multiple Sclerosis:] - Affects 350,000 (number) people in the US - Usually appears between the ages of 20 and 40. - Autoimmune disease; progressively destroys myelin sheaths in the CNS - Condition alternates between relapses and remissions - Affects females twice as often as males. [Epilepsy:] - Periodic episodes of seizures caused by abnormal electrical firing of neurons in the brain - Causes of epilepsy: brain damage, head trauma, brain tumors, brain infections, drug use, unknown - Treatment: antiepileptic drugs **[The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves:]** [Protection of the CNS:] - Bones - cranium - vertebrae - Meninges: 3 layers of tough connective tissue coverings. - *epidural space: (only around spinal cord) -- the space between dura mater and vertebral canal; pain medication can be given here.* - Cerebrospinal fluid (abbreviation: CSF) - Colorless fluid that protects the brain and spinal cord - Circulates through subarachnoid space, central canal and ventricles of brain; gradually reabsorbed into blood - Functions of cerebrospinal fluid: - Shock absorption - Optimum chemical environment for neuron synapses - Exchanges nutrients and waste **[Spinal Cord Anatomy:]** - The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata to L2(in adults) - cervical enlargement: Nerves for arms enter and exit here - lumbar enlargement: Nerves for the legs enter and exit here - 31 pairs of spinal nerves branch off the spinal cord - cauda equina: many nerves that continue down canal at end of the spinal cord [Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord:] - Gray matter surrounded by white matter. - central canal: hole in center, contains cerebrospinal fluid - Gray matter: Responsible for reflexes. - Receives sensory information and sends out motor information - White matter: - Contain ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts to communicate with brain **[Spinal Nerves:]** - There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves - All nerves are *mixes nerves --* they have both sensory and motor functions - Serve as paths of communication between the spinal cord and the body [Spinal Nerve Organization:] - Root: (define) a bundle of axons - Dorsal or posterior root: Carries sensory information to spinal cord - Dorsal root ganglion (swelling) -- contains cell bodies of sensory neurons - Ventral or anterior root -- carries motor information away from spinal cord [Spinal Plexuses:] - A network or group of nerves. - cervical plexus: Located in neck - Phrenic nerve branches off and goes to diaphragm - brachial plexus: Located near armpit - Shoulder and arm nerves branch off - lumbar plexus: Located in lower back - sacral plexus: Located by sacrum - Sciatic nerve branches off and goes to leg, longest nerve in the body [Nerve Problems:] - Sciatica: - Caused by: injury or irritation to the sciatic nerve - Pain radiates: buttock down the back/side of leg - Neuropathy: disorder of a cranial or spinal nerve **[Spinal Cord Functions:]** - Carry messages to and from the brain. - Sensory tracts: Carry sensory information up to the brain - posterior column tracts: carry touch and proprioception - spinothalamic tracts: carry pain and temperature - Motor tracts: Carry motor information down from brain - pyraminal/direct tracts: carry nerve impulses for voluntary movements - nonpyramidal/indirect tracts: carry nerve impulses for unconscious/involuntary movements - Carry out reflexes - Reflex: (define) Why do we have reflexes? [Reflex Arc (Path):] The pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce a reflex. 1\. receptor: Receives stimulus and creates nerve impulse 2\. sensory neuron: Carries nerve impulse to spinal cord 3\. integrating center: Gray matter of spinal cord decides what to do 4\. motor neuron: Carries response to effector 5\. effector: Muscle/gland that responds/reacts - If a reflex is absent or abnormal, this indicates a disease or damage to the nervous system. **[Spinal Cord Injury:]** - Any damage can cause permanent sensory and/or motor loss to parts below the level of injury. - Spinal cord injury can result in: - Contusion: Cord is bruise - Spinal cord compression: Cord is: squeezed/pinched - Complete transaction: Cord is: severed - If injury is in the thoracic region, it can result in paraplegia (paralysis from the waist down). - If injury is in the cervical region, it can result in quadriplegia (paralysis from the neck down) - Poor recovery for brain and spinal cord injuries as there is no neuron repair in CNS - Stem cells could potentially be used in the future to replace damaged neurons. **[Brain and Cranial Nerves:]** [Protection:] The brain is protected by: - Cranium - 3 layers of meninges - CSF **[Blood Supply to Brain and the Blood-Brain Barrier]** - Blood brings \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and glucose to the brain - Interruption of blood flow or oxygen deprivation to the brain: - 1-2 minutes: Impairs \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - 4 minutes or more: Causes \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or brain death - Blood-brain barrier (abbreviated: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_). - Protects the brain from harmful substances by preventing many substances in the blood from passing through to the brain. [**Cerebrospinal Fluid:** (See your previous notes for definitions and functions)] - Ventricles of brain: (define) - Two \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ventricles: One in each half of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Third ventricle: Between halves of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Fourth ventricle: Between \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Choroid plexus: Found in the walls of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Produce:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Hydrocephalus: - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ doesn't drain properly. Pressure builds up in the ventricles and can damage the brain. **[Principal Parts of the Brain:]** - Cerebrum - Diencephalon - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and hypothalmus - Cerebellum - Brainstem - Medulla, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **[The Brain Stem:]** - Medulla Oblongata: - Continuous with the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ cord. - Contains all \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(sensory) and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(motor) tracts - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: 2 bulges where motor tracts pass through - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: The motor tracts cross over. - This is why the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa. - Functions of the Medulla Oblongata: - Passes/relays \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ center: Regulates heart rate and BP - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ center: Regulates breathing - Control centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing - Pons - Bridge between the Medulla Oblongata and the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Also helps control breathing and relays information - Midbrain - Cerebral peduncles (anterior): Contains some tracts to relay information - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Visual reflex center - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Auditory reflex center - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Controls automatic skeletal muscle movements - Reticular Formation: - Maintains \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and waking up - Regulates muscle tone. **[Cerebellum:]** - Has two lobes or hemispheres - Functions: - Coordinates complex movements - Regulates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and balance **[Diencephalon:]** - Main relay station for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Major regulator of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Functions: - Controls:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(ANS) - Produces \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and controls \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ gland - Regulates emotions and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Hunger and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ centers - Controls body temperature - Controls \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ patterns **[Cerebrum:]** - Cerebral Functions: - Receives \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_information and interprets it - Initiates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Generates thoughts and emotions - Stores \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Responsible for personality traits and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Cerebral cortex: (Thin outer layer of gray matter) - Gyri: - Sulci: - Fissure: [ ] Deepest grooves between folds - Longitudinal fissure: Separates the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ into right and left hemispheres - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Band of white matter that connects the cerebral hemispheres together - Central sulcus: Separates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ from \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ lobes - Basil Ganglia: - Consist of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ nuclei - Functions: - Initiate and terminate \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Suppress unwanted movements - Regulate \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tone. - Damage to basal ganglia - Tremors and muscular rigidity (stiffness) in Parkinson's disease. - Limbic System: - Functions: - Emotions (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ center) - Memory - Smell - Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex: - Functions: - Receive sensory information and involved in perceptions - Primary somatosensory area (sense of touch): Postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe - Primary visual area: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ lobe - Primary auditory area: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ lobe - Primary gustatory area (taste): \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ lobe - Primary olfactory area: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_lobe - Motor areas of the cerebral cortex: - Function: - Initiate movement - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ area: precentral gyrus of frontal lobe - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ area: usually in left frontal lobe - Injuries cause \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(inability to speak) or other speech difficulties - Association in areas of cerebral cortex: - Function - Interpret information, store \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, responsible for personality and intelligence - Most lobes have an association area next to them - Hemispheric lateralization: - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hemisphere - Language, math and reasoning - Controls \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ side of the body - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hemisphere - Musical, artistic, and spatial skills - Controls \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ side of the body - Brain waves: - Created by nerve impulses - Measured by an EEG (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) - Used to diagnose sleep disorders, brain disorders, brain death **[The Cranial Nerves:]** - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ pairs of cranial nerves - Branch off of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Three types of cranial nerves: **[Brain Disorders:]** - Stroke or Cerebrovascular Accident (abbreviated: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_). - Blocked/broken blood vessel in brain - Risk factors: - TIA: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or "mini stroke" - Temporary interruption of blood flow to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - No permanent damage but can be a warning sign of future \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Alzheimer's Disease - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ loss that progresses to disabling dementia - Risk factors: - Encephalitis: - Inflammation and swelling of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Head Injuries - Number one cause of accidental death - Two types: - Open head injury - Occurs when an object penetrates the brain - Closed head injury - Occurs when the head collides with an object - Head injury can result in: - Concussion: Temporary loss of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, confusion, memory loss - Contusion: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the brain - Contrecoup -- brain damage on side \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_the trauma - Laceration: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the brain - Brain edema - Hemmorhage - Hematoma **[The Autonomic Nervous System:]** - Function: - Maintains \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ by increasing or decreasing the activity of organs and glands. Controls cardiac muscle (heart), smooth muscle (most organs and blood vessels) and glands - Dual innervation - \_\_\_\_\_ sets of nerves to each organ - One nerve \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the activity - One nerve \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the activity [Basic Anatomy of ANS: (]See Figure 15.1) - Preganglionic neuron (from CNS) - To ganglion - To postganglionic neuron (2^nd^ neuron which leaves ganglion and travels to muscle/gland) [Divisions of the ANS:] - Sympathetic Division - Also called: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ division - Sympathetic trunk ganglia - Found on each side of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - "Fight or flight" responses when under stress - Functions: - Increases heart rate and force of contraction - Increases blood pressure - Increases sweating - Dilates airways - Dilates pupils - Stimulates adrenal gland to release epinephrine and norephinephrine - Dilates blood vessels to organs needed most (heart, lungs, brain, skeletal muscles) - Constricts blood vessels to nonessential organs (skin, GI tract, etc.) - Sympathoadrenal branch - Nervous system branch that stimulates the adrenal gland to release fight or flight hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) - Parasympathetic division - Also called:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ division - Parasympathetic ganglia - Usually found in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Rest and digest responses when body is relaxed - Functions: - **S**alivation - **L**acrimation - **U**rination - **D**igestion - **D**efecation - Reverse sympathetic effects **[Sensory, Motor and Integrative Systems:]** - Sensation - Awareness of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (changes in environment) - 2 types of senses: 1. General 2. Special **[The General Senses:]** - Located all over the body. - High concentrations of sensory receptors are found in the tip of the tongue, lips and fingertips - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ senses: - Touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, pain, proprioception - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ senses: - Provide information about organs [Classification of Receptors:] - Mechanoreceptors: [ ] Detect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Touch receptors: [\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_] - Pressure receptors:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Proprioceptors - Located in skeletal muscles, tendons, and joints - Proprioception: (define) - Free nerve endings: Detect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Thermoreceptors: Detect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ changes - Nociceptors: Detect\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a warning sign) **[The Special Senses:]** - Located in one specific area of the body - Smell, taste, vision, hearing and balance **[Smell and Taste:]** - Olfaction - Chemoreceptors - Located inside \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; detect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Gases enter the nostrils and stimulate the chemoreceptors - Olfactory pathway - Chemoreceptors in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ -\>\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ nerves -\> temporal lobe of brain - Link between smell and memory - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ system is stimulated - Gustation - Chemoreceptors located in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ on tongue - Taste requires chemicals to dissolve in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and then come into contact with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_buds. - Five primary taste sensations - - - - - - Taste is carried by 3 different cranial nerves to parietal lobe **[The Eye:]** [Accessory Structures of the Eye:] - Eyelids or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Function: - Spread tears over eye - Conjunctiva - Thin, clear protective membrane - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: inflammation of the conjunctiva. - Eyelashes and eyebrows - Function: [Lacrimal Apparatus:] - Lacrimal glands - Produce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Spread by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Tears - Function: - Lacrimal canals and nasolacrimal duct - Collect and drain tears away to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Extrinsic eye muscles: Move the eyeballs **[Tunics (layers) of the Eyeball:]** 1\. Fibrous Tunic (outer layer) - Cornea and sclera - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Transparent, curved covering over iris - Helps to focus \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ onto retina - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: White of the eye - Function: 2\. Vascular Tunic (middle layer) - Choroid, ciliary body and iris - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Contains blood vessels that nourish the eye - Ciliary body - Ciliary processes which secrete \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Ciliary muscle which changes the shape of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Iris (colored part) - Regulates the amount of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ that enters eye through pupil - Pupil (hole) - In bright light, pupils \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - In dim light, pupils \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 3\. Retina (inner layer) - Optic disk/\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ spot: Place where optic nerve leaves the eye. - Retina contains \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ which detect light and convert it into a nerve impulse. - Types of Photoreceptors: - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Function in dim, low light. Black, grey vision. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Function in bright light. Color vision. - Macula lutea - Located in the center of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(fovea centralis): Point of sharpest vision; only contains cones. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Breakdown of the macula lutea, causes blindness - Retinas may detach and distort vision/cause blindness - Lens: Focuses \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Suspensory ligaments hold lens in place - Cataracts: (define) - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Lens loses its elasticity due to aging and is less able to focus **[Inferior Cavities of the Eyeball:]** - Anterior cavity - Located: - Filled with a watery substance called: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball - Glaucoma: Increased intraocular pressure of aqueous humor which causes \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Posterior cavity - Located: - Filled with a jellylike substance called:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball and keeps retina flat **[Major Processes of Image Formation:]** - Refraction (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of light): Light rays bend as they enter the eye - Image is upside down and backwards on retina - Accommodation: Change in shape of the lens to see close objects - Ciliary muscles change lens' shape - Constriction of pupil - Prevents blurred vision **[Vision Problems:]** - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Nearsighted, image falls in front of the retina - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Farsighted, image falls behind retina - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Irregular curvature of lens or cornea - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Unable to see well in low light - Caused by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ deficiency, genetics, aging - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Inherited inability to tell certain colors apart - One type of cone is missing its pigment **[The Ear:]** - Functions of the ear: - Hearing - Balance (equilibrium) - The Outer Ear: - Auricle -- also called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Function: - External auditory canal - Contains \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ glands which produce cerumen - Cerumen prevents dirt and bacteria from entering the ear - Tympanic membrane (also called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) - Thin membrane that vibrates from \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - The Middle Ear: - Small, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ filled cavity - Eustachian tube (also called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_tube) - Connects middle ear to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. - Equalizes pressure in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ear. - Auditory ossicles (ear bones) - Function: Transmit and magnify \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to inner ear - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, also called hammer, next to ear drum. - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, also called anvil, middle bone - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, also called stirrup, next to oval window - The Inner Ear: - Bony labyrinth: set of cavities in temporal bone - Filled with fluid called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Vestibule: Equilibrium and balance - Semicircular canals (\_\_\_ loops): Equilibrium and balance - Cochlea: (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ shaped): Hearing - Membranous labyrinth: set of sacs and tubes inside the bony labyrinth - Filled with fluid called: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Function:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Contains \_\_\_\_\_\_ fluid-filled chambers and Organ of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ contains hair cells which are receptors for hearing/sound - Hair cells change sound vibrations into \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_impulses - Frequency (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) - Different areas inside the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ respond to different pitches - Loudness - Louder sounds cause more \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and may stimulate more hair cells [Two kinds of Equilibrium (balance):] 1\. Static Equilibrium -- vestibule Maintain position of the head in relation to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 2. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Equilibrium -- semicircular canals Maintain position of the head in response to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ movements [Vertigo:] - Dizziness or spinning sensation, often with nausea and vomiting - Caused by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ infection/disorder [Hearing Disorders:] \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Significant or total hearing loss - Types: - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ deafness: Damage to either hair cells in cochlea or vestibulocochlear nerve - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ deafness: Damage to external or middle ear - Cause of deafness: Loud music, loud noises, aging - Lose the ability to hear \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ sounds first. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: Constant ringing, roaring or buzzing sound in ears [Otitis Media:] - Middle ear infection. - Usually caused by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ - Most common in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_