Gender-Based Violence PDF

LESSON 1: GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND ITS ROOTS I. What is Gender-Based Violence? In 1993, the United Nations used the term “gender-based violence (GBV)” synonymously with “violence against women (VAW)”. According to the UN Decl...

LESSON 1: GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND ITS ROOTS I. What is Gender-Based Violence? In 1993, the United Nations used the term “gender-based violence (GBV)” synonymously with “violence against women (VAW)”. According to the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, violence against women is “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrarily deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life (SIDA 2007).” The term “gender-based” is used because this kind of violence is shaped by gender roles and status in society. In the case of VAW, such violence exists due to the gender roles and expectations, male entitlement, sexual objectification, and discrepancies in power status (Russo and Pirlott 2006). While GBV disproportionately affects women and girls, it also victimizes men and boys. As mentioned above, the cases of women are linked to social arrangements that maintain the power and dominance of men. However, highly masculinized environments, such as military camps and conflict- inflicted areas, also instigate the use of violence against men as a form of humiliating, degrading, and correcting their actions (OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions 2019). Emphasized in the UN Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 held in Beijing, China, and reflected in several international agreements like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, GBV is first and foremost a human rights issue (SIDA 2015). II. Examining the Roots of Gender-Based Violence No single factor can explain why violence is practiced by some individuals or why violence is still perpetuated in several communities. In order for us to create steps in eliminating such problem, there is a need for us to understand that violence is the result of the complex interplay of individual, relationship, social, cultural, and environmental factors (WHO 2002). (World Health Organization Ecological Model in SIDA 2015) 1  At the individual level, biological traits and personal history are aspects to be considered in analyzing one’s behavior (SIDA 2015). Is the individual a victim of child maltreatment? Did the individual experience alcohol or substance abuse? Does the individual have psychological or personality disorder? These are common biological and demographic problems that affect an individual’s behavior, along with other factors such as impulsivity, low educational attainment, and prior history of aggression and abuse (WHO 2002). In general, the first level of ecological model focuses on the characteristics of individuals that will likely contribute to their risk of being victims or perpetrators of violence. The second level of ecological model seeks to understand how social relationships increase the risk of an individual in becoming a victim or a perpetrator of violence. Our partners in life, friends, and family members are the very people we interact on an almost daily basis, and these interactions actually have the potential in shaping our behavior, perspective, and range of experience. The risk is high for violent victimization and perpetration of violence at the level of relationships when these conditions manifest: poor parenting practices, marital discord, violent parental conflict, low socio-economic household status, and friends that engage in violence (SIDA 2015). In the case for instance of child maltreatment, children are repeatedly abused by their guardians due to their high proximity in their homes. The opportunity for violent encounters in this kind of set-up is high because these individuals are bound together in a continuing relationship (WHO 2002). In the third level, the ecological model situates these social relationships within the context of communities. It is important that we look into these larger community settings – schools, workplaces, and neighborhoods – as they immensely influence how we interact with people and how we respond to certain circumstances. In this context, the risk of being a victim or being a perpetrator of violence is higher in communities experiencing poverty, high crime rates, high level of residential mobility, high population density, high unemployment, and local illegal drug trade (SIDA 2015). The fourth and final level of the ecological model examines how formal and informal laws (societal factors) influence the rates of violence. Formal laws refer to the health, educational, economic, and social policies that governments institutionalize in order to address the collective needs of their people. However, it is evident that many societies use these policies to maintain high levels of economic or social inequality between groups which results to the use of violence to disrupt the existing order. In societies where there is a poor rule of law and weak economic safety nets, the privileged gets to enjoy rights and benefits of being a citizen while the disadvantaged has no choice but to resort to violence as a way of surviving. Meanwhile, informal laws are the social and cultural norms that people repetitively follow as members of society. The climate for violence in some societies is more apparent because they are more tolerant in practicing and sustaining norms which have manifestations of violence. Examples of practices in some societies include “cultural norms that support violence as an acceptable way to resolve conflicts, attitudes that regard suicide as a matter of individual choice instead of a preventable act of violence, norms that entrench male dominance over women and children, norms that support the use of excessive force by police against citizens, and norms that support political conflict (Ibid.).” In societies where cultural norms support violence, members are conditioned to a kind of thinking and acting that makes them susceptible to become victims or perpetrators of violence. 2  LESSON 2: MULTIPLE EXPRESSIONS OF GENDER- BASED VIOLENCE I. Domestic Violence Using the behavioral lens, domestic violence is defined as a “pattern of assaultive and coercive behaviors, including physical, sexual, and psychological attacks, as well as economic coercion, that adults or adolescents use against their intimate partners (Ganley 2002).” These manifestations of physical abuse can also be in the form of sexual assault where the perpetrator forces the victim to be involved in a sexual activity, including vaginal, oral or anal intercourse. Aside from physical violence, domestic violence can also manifest as psychological abuse which forces the victim to perform degrading actions as a result of the threats levied by the perpetrator. In most circumstances, economic coercion is used by the perpetrator to control his/her partner by taking away his/her basic necessities, such as food, money, clothing, and transportation, which leaves the victim in a situation of reliance with the abuser. Although domestic violence is a global phenomenon, it is important that we understand that there is no single reason as to why this act is perpetuated. For instance, the vulnerability of women to such violence can be explained interconnected and institutionalized socio-cultural, economic, legal, and political factors (UNICEF 2000). II. Sexual Violence by Non-Partners According to the World Health Organization, 7% of women around the world have been exposed to sexual violence outside a relationship (WHO 2013 in SIDA 2015). Sexual violence encompasses “acts that range from verbal harassment to forced penetration, and an array of types of coercion, from social pressure and intimidation to physical force (WHO 2012).” Sexual assault, sexual harassment, rape, and gang rape are the most common forms of sexual violence by non-partners that usually victimize women and girls inside and outside the comfort of their homes. These acts are expressions of misogynistic norms that continue to target and devalue women and femininity which results to a larger problem of social exclusion and marginalization (SIDA 2015). Misogynistic norms always reinforce patriarchal standards by forcing women to live up to the expectations imposed to them. For instance, women are told not to wear skirts that show almost all of their legs because doing so would imply that they want to be objectified and used by men. Instead of pointing our hands to the perpetrators of sexual violence, it is part of our conventional thinking in a rape scenario to blame the victim because of how she wears clothes. In South Africa, sexual violence by non-partners exceeded the numbers posed by intimate partner violence. According to the most recent survey of the prevalence of rape in South Africa, it was found out that one out of five men reported raping a woman who was not a partner, while one out of seven reported raping a former or current partner (Jewkes et al. 2011 in WHO 2012). It is vital that international and local organizations and governments take necessary steps in preventing such actions in order to create safe public spaces for women to participate in various affairs in society. 3 III. Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Political instability and heightened internal tensions increase the risk of sexual violence within communities and households. In places where armed conflicts exist, sexual violence is used as a tactic of war committed by several parties in conjunction with other crimes such as killing and looting. Women are being treated as gifts for fighters who are able to complete their mission successfully aside from the on-going sex trafficking and prostitution that they also experience to sustain the costs of terrorism. Due to the poor welfare services and the breaking down of justice systems, women and other victims of sexual violence always have a hard time in escaping such catastrophic scene while perpetrators have been left unpunished. The increase in militarization by deploying more state forces in conflict-inflicted setting is supposed to suppress the actions committed by extremist groups. However, state forces are more likely to be reported as perpetrators of sexual violence than rebels in their operations (Wood and Hover-Green 2012 in SIDA 2015). To degrade and humiliate men from the opposing side, it is found out that they use sexual violence in the form of rape to humiliate members of extremist groups and brand them as failed protectors of their women and children. IV. Violence Rooted in Tradition In recent international human rights discussions, the concept “harmful traditional practices” has been used to refer to the cultural norms, beliefs, and practices that continue to coerce members of the community, particularly women and girls, to undergo multiple forms of violence (SIDA 2015). Initially, the focus of legislations was on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) but the discussions also highlighted violence in the name of honor in recent years. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is the collective term to several different practices that involve the cutting of female genitals. As a rite of passage for girls to enter womanhood, FGM is commonly done upon girls anywhere between the ages of four and twelve, and the procedure is generally performed by a traditional practitioner who comes from a family that sustains such tradition over a long a period of time (Center for Reproductive Rights 2000). According to World Health Organization, FGM is known to be practiced commonly in the African region, specifically in 27 countries that are geographically located in the continent’s eastern, north eastern, and western regions (WHO 2008). There are many justifications for the practice of FGM. Primarily, it is a way of preserving cultural identity as it is embedded in the customs and traditions of some communities. In terms of the value placed on women’s sexuality, the conduct of such activity is also necessary for women to become productive members of community due to the reduction of their sexual fulfilment. Moreover, the social pressure from family and friends also contributes to the justification of FGM as they create an environment that leaves girls with no choice but to undergo circumcision for social acceptance. Based on the classifications made by the World Health Organization (WHO), there are four types of FGM: Type I (commonly referred to as “clitoridectomy”): the excision of the prepuce with or without excision of the clitoris Type II (commonly referred to as “excision”): the excision of the prepuce and clitoris together with partial or total excision of the labia minora Type III (commonly referred to as “infibulation”): the excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening Type IV: all other procedures involving partial or total removal of the female external genitalia for cultural or any other nontherapeutic reasons. 4 V. Early/Child Marriage A formal or informal union before the age of 18 is considered by the international community as a form of gender-based violence (SIDA 2015). Early marriage often occurs in spatial contexts where poverty is prevalent and is also increasingly normalized in conflict affected communities. In places where families starve due to their inability to access basic commodities, the economic burden attached to young girls is overturned by marrying them off to much older men as a family strategy of surviving (UNICEF 2001). In general, what can be seen as the driving force for early marriage is the idea that it is a platform that offers ultimate “protection” measures for young girls in the face of adversities and social inequalities. Although early marriage is perceived to provide protection for young girls, it may actually result to bigger problems for them. Under the perspective of human rights, the negative impacts of early marriage to girls are the denial of their childhood and adolescence, the curtailment of their personal freedoms and the failure to develop their own identities, and the rejection of their psychosocial and emotional well- being, reproductive health, and educational opportunity (UNICEF 2001). Obviously, a girl that is married at an early age has no time to enjoy her childhood and adolescence as she is already confined to the home and to household roles. Being tied to these boundaries, young girls are unable to pursue their passion, have been denied of their right to education which put them in a disadvantaged position in preparing for their adulthood, and are stuck in a setting where they have to play their conventional roles as wives and mothers. VI. Violence Against LGBT Persons Lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgenders, and other members of the rainbow community face high levels of discrimination and gender-based violence worldwide. As a result of attitudes and beliefs that we pick up from parents, schools, communities, religious leaders, and social influencers, we tend to develop fear or dislike to gender identities that do not conform with what we are accustomed to. Examples of these irrational fears are homophobia and transphobia. Homophobia is defined as “an irrational fear of, and aversion to, homosexuality and to lesbian, gay, bisexual persons based on prejudice (Perry and Franey 2017, 27).” Meanwhile, transphobia is defined as “an irrational fear of, and aversion to, transgender persons’ gender non-conformity based on prejudice (Ibid.).” Due to our advanced judgment and preconceived ideas toward these persons, we tend to look at them differently and act in front of them with inhibitions. Homophobia and transphobia are experienced in varying levels in countries but their common manifestations include avoidance, social exclusion, discrimination, abusive behavior, violence, and even murder. In legal terms, discrimination is defined as an unjustified and an unequal treatment towards an individual or a certain group of people. To better understand its formal meaning, discrimination can be classified as either direct or indirect. When a person or a group of people are treated less favourably than the majority of the population due to their affiliation to a minority group, the situation can be considered as a direct discrimination (Ibid., 28). For instance, the refusal of a police officer to take a crime report from a transgender woman who is a rape victim clearly shows how individuals can be treated unfairly based on their membership to a minority group, in this case, the rainbow community. On the other hand, indirect discrimination manifests in the practices and legislations that we thought to be putting everyone in equal terms. Examples of indirect discrimination include the privileges and benefits given to heterosexual married couples over same-sex relationships like maternity leave and other special annual leave entitlements. 5  LESSON 3: PREVENTING AND ADDRESSING GENDER- BASED VIOLENCE I. School-Based Interventions Before gender stereotypes become deeply ingrained in the minds of children, parents and teachers are responsible in handling interventions that address gender norms and equality early in their lives. These key adults in children’s lives often seek to reinforce the powerful normativity of heterosexuality where expectations of young men and young women differ (Wood and Aggleton 2004). In the case of young men in the family, it is expected for them to start having sexual relations early and gain sexual experience by having sexual partners. Aside from sexual exploration, traditional beliefs also push men to control women which make women and girls vulnerable to physical, emotional, and sexual violence by men. On the other hand, young women are pressured by adults to maintain their virginity until marriage or at least restrict the numbers of their partners, and maintain their passive roles as wives and mothers come adulthood. This kind of arrangement only reinforces the rigid cultural constructions of masculinity and femininity that we need to eliminate in order to achieve gender equality. Due to the existence of such parameter, young people all over the world are stigmatized and discriminated in relation to their sexual and reproductive health when they do practices that are not perceived to be natural. For instance, young women are usually stigmatized and discriminated when they practice pre- marital sex and when they become pregnant outside marriage. Meanwhile, men are commonly excluded in society when they become HIV-positive or when they engage in same-sex activity. As a result, young people tend to conceal their sexual activities from significant adults in their lives due to the shame and secrecy that stigma brings (Ibid.). In schools, discussing and addressing gender-based violence and promoting the reproductive health of young people is not an easy task because it requires a move beyond reproductive biology. It can be said that what is only discussed to students are the concepts concerning the reproductive system. Education and information in schools still neglect discussing real-life situations and choices that will make students aware of how their reproductive system is connected to how they are positioned and viewed in society. This can be attributed to the generational gap between teachers and students. In this setting, it is vital that teachers understand the context where young people live and try to make necessary adjustments instead of imposing traditional norms that are proven to only reinforce the burden of having more HIV-positive cases, teenage pregnancy, and victims of multiple expressions of violence. II. Community Interventions Empowering women by strengthening their economic position is a community program that has been implemented in developing countries. In our past discussion, you learned that gender stratification is based on who controls the tools of food production and who secures substantial needs of the family, such as food, clothing, and shelter (Huber 1974). In order for the community to stop violence against women, there is a need to redefine the idea of masculinity that only asserts dominance and control over women. This can be done by mobilizing entire villages or districts into giving women a platform for them to improve their position in the society, and by also engaging men in community discussions regarding masculinity, gender norms, and violence. 6  In order to increase women’s economic and social power in the community, a number of efforts have been made to link women in microfinance (World Health Organization 2009). By lending women small loans, they are given the opportunity to mobilize resources for income-generating projects which can alleviate poverty. Aside from the economic gain, the said program also incorporates education and skills-building workshops to ensure that their economic productivity is backed up by individual enrichment and improved communication in relationships. In the past, women were only contained in their homes which isolated them from the opportunities that they could gain from establishing social networks. Thus, the goal of this program is to change that narrative by improving women’s employment opportunities, increasing their influence in household decisions, and strengthening their social networks. III. Media Interventions The process of gender construction of individuals is also determined by media. In Module 1, you learned that mass media is a platform readily available for adolescents and young people which reinforce gender inequalities across ages. Television shows, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet promote gender differences and assigned roles for both men and women, which only creates a world where aggression as a form of masculinity is encouraged and a set of Western beauty standards is followed relentlessly by women. As a response to this set-up, national governments and non-government organizations also utilize media as a tool to increase knowledge, challenge attitudes, and modify social norms and values through public discussion and social interaction. In module 2, you have learned that the fourth wave of feminism relies heavily on the use of social media as an essential tool to forward women’s rights. By posting online, feminist activists are able to fight manifestations of sexism and misogyny, and advocate for the causes that they believe to be pressing in the lives of women. In promoting gender equality, media campaigns outside the Internet have also proven successful in increasing knowledge of intimate partner violence and influencing attitudes towards gender norms. IV. Government Interventions Governments have a strong influence in ending any form of gender-based violence. Under General Recommendation No. 19 of the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 1992, it is the obligation of governments to prevent violence against women and to establish progressive measures for victims of violence by institutionalizing and strengthening legal and policy frameworks (SIDA 2015). In preventing and responding to GBV, there is a need to improve existing legislation that is directly linked to GBV. In Module 2, you have learned the value of feminist movements and how they better the lives of women in society. The wide number of laws and policies addressing GBV is due to these historical waves of women’s struggle. This gives us the idea that comprehensive laws protecting women from violence in the present time must also echo the advocacies of women’s rights organizations across the globe. In other words, governments only become progressive in preventing and addressing GBV when they listen to the problems and voices of feminist movements. Under national and international law, perpetrators of GBV must be held accountable especially if they are part of the state forces. In conflict-affected setting, it was found out that state forces are more likely to commit violence against women which can be interpreted generally as part of the systematic failures of police and justice personnel. In order for the government to create a just society, it is vital that they create spaces for state forces to be educated about the appropriate their actions so as to not add up to the burden of addressing GBV. 7